How to linux and Open Source
Written by vaheeD on January 9, 2013
Copyright (C) 2004 (GNU Free Documentation License) Last Updated: May EDT 2012 Currently 117 tips.
.
The latest version of this document can be found at:
http://chirico.googlecode.com/svn/trunk/Documentation/Articles/Linux/How_to_Linux_and_Open_Source.txt
Or you can download the document:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/How_to_Linux_and_Open_Source.txt?download
For tips on Gmail with Postix and Fetchmail
http://souptonuts.sourceforge.net/postfix_tutorial.html
For tips on using SQLite (over 25 pages)
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/README_sqlite_tutorial.html?download
For tips on MySQL reference:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/README_mysql.txt?download
For a recommended reading list
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/Recommended_Reading.html?download
For tips on upgrading RedHat 9 or 8.0 to 2.6.x src kernel
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/README_26.txt?download
For tips on Comcast Email with Home Linux Box
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/README_COMCAST_EMAIL.txt?download
**Note, if you want email notification after every 50 new tips have been
added, then, click on the following link:
https://sourceforge.net/project/filemodule_monitor.php?filemodule_id=120838
.
TIP 1:
Is NTP Working?
STEP 1 (Test the current server):
Try issuing the following command:
$ ntpq -pn
remote refid st t when poll reach delay offset jitter
===================================================
tock.usno.navy 0.0.0.0 16 u - 64 0 0.000 0.000 4000.00
The above is an example of a problem.
Compare it to a working configuration.
$ ntpq -pn
remote refid st t when poll reach delay offset jitter
========================================================
+128.4.40.12 128.4.40.10 2 u 107 128 377 25.642 3.350 1.012
127.127.1.0 127.127.1.0 10 l 40 64 377 0.000 0.000 0.008
+128.91.2.13 128.4.40.12 3 u 34 128 377 21.138 6.118 0.398
*192.5.41.41 .USNO. 1 u 110 128 377 33.69 9.533 3.534
STEP 2 (Configure the /etc/ntp.conf):
$ cat /etc/ntp.conf
# My simple client-only ntp configuration.
server timeserver1.upenn.edu
# ping -a timeserver1.upenn.edu shows the IP address 128.91.2.13
# which is used in the restrict below
restrict 128.91.2.13
server tock.usno.navy.mil
restrict 192.5.41.41
server 128.4.40.12
restrict 128.4.40.12
server 127.127.1.0 # local clock
fudge 127.127.1.0 stratum 10
driftfile /etc/ntp/drift
restrict default ignore
restrict 127.0.0.0 mask 255.0.0.0
authenticate no
STEP 3 (Configure /etc/ntp/step-tickers):
The values for server above are placed in the "/etc/ntp/step-tickers" file
$ cat /etc/ntp/step-tickers
timeserver1.upenn.edu
tock.usno.navy.mil
128.4.40.12
The startup script /etc/rc.d/init.d/ntpd will grab the servers in this
file and execute the ntpdate command as follows:
/usr/sbin/ntpdate -s -b -p 8 timeserver1.upenn.edu
Why? Because if the time is off ntpd will not start. The command above set the
clock. If System Time deviates from true time by more than 1000 seconds, then,
the ntpd daemon will enter panic mode and exit.
STEP 4 (Restart the service and check):
Issue the restart command
/etc/init.d/ntpd restart
check the values for "ntpq -pn",
which should match step 1.
ntpq -pn
SPECIAL NOTE:
Time is always stored in the kernel as the number of seconds since
midnight of the 1st of January 1970 UTC, regardless of whether the
hardware clock is stored as UTC or not. Conversions to local time
are done at run-time. So, it's easy to get the time in different
timezones for only the current session as follows:
$ export TZ=EST
$ date
Mon Aug 2 10:34:04 EST 2004
$ export TZ=NET
$ date
Mon Aug 2 15:34:18 NET 2004
The following are possible values for TZ:
Hours From Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Value Description
0 GMT Greenwich Mean Time
+1 ECT European Central Time
+2 EET European Eastern Time
+2 ART
+3 EAT Saudi Arabia
+3.5 MET Iran
+4 NET
+5 PLT West Asia
+5.5 IST India
+6 BST Central Asia
+7 VST Bangkok
+8 CTT China
+9 JST Japan
+9.5 ACT Central Australia
+10 AET Eastern Australia
+11 SST Central Pacific
+12 NST New Zealand
-11 MIT Samoa
-10 HST Hawaii
-9 AST Alaska
-8 PST Pacific Standard Time
-7 PNT Arizona
-7 MST Mountain Standard Time
-6 CST Central Standard Time
-5 EST Eastern Standard Time
-5 IET Indiana East
-4 PRT Atlantic Standard Time
-3.5 CNT Newfoundland
-3 AGT Eastern South America
-3 BET Eastern South America
-1 CAT Azores
DST timezone
0 BST for British Summer.
+400 ADT for Atlantic Daylight.
+500 EDT for Eastern Daylight.
+600 CDT for Central Daylight.
+700 MDT for Mountain Daylight.
+800 PDT for Pacific Daylight.
+900 YDT for Yukon Daylight.
+1000 HDT for Hawaii Daylight.
-100 MEST for Middle European Summer,
MESZ for Middle European Summer,
SST for Swedish Summer and FST for French Summer.
-700 WADT for West Australian Daylight.
-1000 EADT for Eastern Australian Daylight.
-1200 NZDT for New Zealand Daylight.
The following is an example of setting the TZ environment variable
for the timezone, only when timezone changes go into effect.
$ export TZ=EST+5EDT,M4.1.0/2,M10.5.0/2
Take a look at the last line "M10.5.0/2". What does it mean? Here is the
documentation
Mm.w.d This specifies day d (0 <= d <= 6) of week w (1 <= w <= 5) of
month m (1 <= m <= 12). Week 1 is the first week in which day d
occurs and week 5 is the last week in which day d occurs. Day 0
is a Sunday.
The time fields specify when, in the local time currently in
effect, the change to the other time occurs. If omitted,
the default is 02:00:00.
So this is what it means. M10 stands for October, the 5 is the fifth week
that includes a Sunday (note 0 in M10.5.0/2 is Sunday). To see that it is
the fifth week see the calendar below. The time change occurs a 2am in
the morning. (Special Note: In 2007, DST was extended. See TIP 230).
October
Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
17 18 19 20 21 22 23
24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31
Prove it. Take the following program sunrise, which can calcuates sunrise
and sunset for an latitude and longitude. This program can be downloaded
from the following location:
http://sourceforge.net/direct-dl/mchirico/souptonuts/working_with_time.tar.gz
Below is a bash script that will run the program for the next 100 days.
#!/bin/bash
# program: next100days Mike Chirico
# download:
# http://sourceforge.net/direct-dl/mchirico/souptonuts/working_with_time.tar.gz
#
# This will calculate the sunrise and sunset for
# latitude 39.95 Note must convert to degrees
# longitude 75.15 Note must convert to degrees
lat=39.95
long=75.15
for (( i=0; i <= 100; i++))
do
sunrise `date -d "+$i day" "+%Y %m %d"` $lat $long
done
Take a look at the following sample output.
$ export TZ=EST+5EDT,M4.1.0/2,M10.5.0/2
$ ./next100days
Sunrise 08-24-2004 06:21:12 Sunset 08-24-2004 19:43:42
Sunrise 08-25-2004 06:22:09 Sunset 08-25-2004 19:42:12
Sunrise 08-26-2004 06:23:06 Sunset 08-26-2004 19:40:41
Sunrise 08-27-2004 06:24:03 Sunset 08-27-2004 19:39:09
Sunrise 08-28-2004 06:25:00 Sunset 08-28-2004 19:37:37
Sunrise 08-29-2004 06:25:56 Sunset 08-29-2004 19:36:04
Sunrise 08-30-2004 06:26:53 Sunset 08-30-2004 19:34:31
Sunrise 08-31-2004 06:27:50 Sunset 08-31-2004 19:32:57
Sunrise 09-01-2004 06:28:46 Sunset 09-01-2004 19:31:22
Sunrise 09-02-2004 06:29:43 Sunset 09-02-2004 19:29:47
..[values omitted ]
Sunrise 10-28-2004 07:25:31 Sunset 10-28-2004 18:02:34
Sunrise 10-29-2004 07:26:38 Sunset 10-29-2004 18:01:19
Sunrise 10-30-2004 07:27:46 Sunset 10-30-2004 18:00:06
Sunrise 10-31-2004 06:28:53 Sunset 10-31-2004 16:58:54
Sunrise 11-01-2004 06:30:01 Sunset 11-01-2004 16:57:44
Sunrise 11-02-2004 06:31:10 Sunset 11-02-2004 16:56:35
Compare 10-30-2004 with 10-31-2004. Sunrise is an hour earlier because
daylight saving time has ended, just as predicted.
There is an easier way to switch between timezones. Take a look at the
directory zoneinfo as follows:
$ ls /usr/share/zoneinfo
Africa Chile Factory Iceland Mexico posix UCT
America CST6CDT GB Indian Mideast posixrules Universal
Antarctica Cuba GB-Eire Iran MST PRC US
Arctic EET GMT iso3166.tab MST7MDT PST8PDT UTC
Asia Egypt GMT0 Israel Navajo right WET
Atlantic Eire GMT-0 Jamaica NZ ROC W-SU
Australia EST GMT+0 Japan NZ-CHAT ROK zone.tab
Brazil EST5EDT Greenwich Kwajalein Pacific Singapore Zulu
Canada Etc Hongkong Libya Poland SystemV
CET Europe HST MET Portugal Turkey
TZ can be set to any one of these files. Some of these are directories and contain
subdirectories, such as ./posix/America. This way you don not have to enter the
timezone, offset, and range for dst, since it has already been calculated.
$ export TZ=:/usr/share/zoneinfo/posix/America/Aruba
$ export TZ=:/usr/share/zoneinfo/Egypt
Reference:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/cpearls/date_calc.tar.gz?download
Also see (TIP 27).
Also see (TIP 103) using chrony which is very similiar to ntpd.
Note time settings can usually be found in /etc/sysconfig/clock
TIP 2:
cpio works like tar, only better.
STEP 1 (Create two directories with data ../dir1 an ../dir2)
mkdir -p ../dir1
mkdir -p ../dir2
cp /etc/*.conf ../dir1/.
cp /etc/*.cnf ../dir2/.
Which will backup all your cnf and conf files.
STEP 2 (Piping the files to tar)
cpio works like tar but can take input
from the "find" command.
$ find ../dir1/ | cpio -o --format=tar > test.tar
or
$ find ../dir1/ | cpio -o -H tar > test2.tar
Same command without the ">"
$ find ../dir1/ | cpio -o --format=tar -F test.tar
or
$ find ../dir1/ | cpio -o -H tar -F test2.tar
Using append
$ find ../dir1/ | cpio -o --format=tar -F test.tar
or
$ find ../dir2/ | cpio -o --format=tar --append -F test.tar
STEP 3 (List contents of the tar file)
$ cpio -it < test.tar
or
$ cpio -it -F test.tar
STEP 4 (Extract the contents)
$ cpio -i -F test.tar
TIP 3:
Working with tar. The basics with encryption.
STEP 1 (Using the tar command on the directory /stuff)
Suppose you have a directory /stuff
To tar everything in stuff to create a ".tar" file.
$ tar -cvf stuff.tar stuff
Which will create "stuff.tar".
STEP 2 (Using the tar command to create a ".tar.gz" of /stuff)
$ tar -czf stuff.tar.gz stuff
STEP 3 (List the files in the archive)
$ tar -tzf stuff.tar.gz
or
$ tar -tf stuff.tar
STEP 4 (A way to list specific files)
Note, pipe the results to a file and edit
$ tar -tzf stuff.tar.gz > mout
Then, edit mout to only include the files you want
$ tar -T mout -xzf stuff.tar.gz
The above command will only get the files in mout.
Of couse, if you want them all
$ tar -xzf stuff.tar.gz
STEP 5 (ENCRYPTION)
$ tar -zcvf - stuff|openssl des3 -salt -k secretpassword | dd of=stuff.des3
This will create stuff.des3...don't forget the password you
put in place of secretpassword. This can be done interactively as
well.
$ dd if=stuff.des3 |openssl des3 -d -k secretpassword|tar zxf -
NOTE: above there is a "-" at the end... this will
extract everything.
TIP 4:
Creating a Virtual File System and Mounting it with a Loopback Device.
STEP 1 (Construct a 10MB file)
$ dd if=/dev/zero of=/tmp/disk-image count=20480
By default dd uses block of 512 so the size will be 20480*512
STEP 2 (Make an ext2 or ext3 file system) -- ext2 shown here.
$ mke2fs -q
or if you want ext3
$ mkfs -t ext3 -q /tmp/disk-image
yes, you can even use reiser, but you'll need to create a bigger
disk image. Something like "dd if=/dev/zero of=/tmp/disk-image count=50480".
$ mkfs -t reiserfs -q /tmp/disk-image
Hit yes for confirmation. It only asks this because it's a file
STEP 3 (Create a directory "virtual-fs" and mount. This has to be done as root)
$ mkdir /virtual-fs
$ mount -o loop=/dev/loop0 /tmp/disk-image /virtual-fs
SPECIAL NOTE: if you mount a second device you will have to increase the
loop count: loop=/dev/loop1, loop=/dev/loop2, ... loop=/dev/loopn
Now it operates just like a disk. This virtual filesystem can be mounted
when the system boots by adding the following to the "/etc/fstab" file. Then,
to mount, just type "mount /virtual-fs".
/tmp/disk-image /virtual-fs ext2 rw,loop=/dev/loop0 0 0
STEP 4 (When done, umount it)
$ umount /virtual-fs
SPECIAL NOTE: If you are using Fedora core 2, in the /etc/fstab you can take
advantage of acl properties for this mount. Note the acl next to the
rw entry. This is shown here with ext3.
/tmp/disk-image /virtual-fs ext3 rw,acl,loop=/dev/loop1 0 0
Also, if you are using Fedora core 2 and above, you can mount the file
on a cryptoloop.
$ dd if=/dev/urandom of=disk-aes count=20480
$ modprobe loop
$ modprobe cryptoloop
$ modprobe aes
$ losetup -e aes /dev/loop0 disk-aes
$ mkfs -t ext2 /dev/loop0
$ mount -o loop,encryption=aes disk-aes <mount point>
If you do not have Fedora core 2, then, you can build the kernel from source
with some of the following options (not complete, yet)
reference:
http://cvs.sourceforge.net/viewcvs.py/cpearls/cpearls/src/posted_on_sf/acl/ehd.pdf?rev=1.1&view=log
Cryptographic API Support (CONFIG_CRYPTO)
generic loop cryptographic (CONFIG_CRYPTOLOOP)
Cryptographic ciphers (CONFIG_CIPHERS)
Enable one or more ciphers (CONFIG CIPHER .*) such as AES.
HELPFUL INFORMATION: It is possible to bind mount partitions, or associate the
mounted partition to a directory name.
# mount --bind /virtual-fs /home/mchirico/vfs
Also, if you want to see what filesystems are currently mounted, "cat" the
file "/etc/mtab"
$ cat /etc/mtab
Also see TIP 91.
TIP 5:
Setting up 2 IP address on "One" NIC. This example is on ethernet.
STEP 1 (The settings for the initial IP address)
$ cat /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0
DEVICE=eth0
BOOTPROTO=static
BROADCAST=192.168.99.255
IPADDR=192.168.1.155
NETMASK=255.255.252.0
NETWORK=192.168.1.0
ONBOOT=yes
STEP 2 (2nd IP address: )
$ cat /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0:1
DEVICE=eth0:1
BOOTPROTO=static
BROADCAST=192.168.99.255
IPADDR=192.168.1.182
NETMASK=255.255.252.0
NETWORK=192.168.1.0
ONBOOT=yes
SUMMARY Note, in STEP 1 the filename is "ifcfg-eth0", whereas in
STEP 2 it's "ifcfg-eth0:1" and also not the matching
entries for "DEVICE=...". Also, obviously, the
"IPADDR" is different as well.
TIP 6:
Sharing Directories Among Several Users.
Several people are working on a project in "/home/share"
and they need to create documents and programs so that
others in the group can edit and execute these documents
as needed. Also see (TIP 186) for adding existing users
to groups.
$ /usr/sbin/groupadd share
$ chown -R root.share /home/share
$ /usr/bin/gpasswd -a <username> share
$ chmod 2775 /home/share
$ ls -ld /home/share
drwxrwsr-x 2 root share 4096 Nov 8 16:19 /home/share
^---------- Note the s bit, which was set with the chmod 2775
$ cat /etc/group
...
share:x:502:chirico,donkey,zoe
... ^------- users are added to this group.
The user may need to login again to get access. Or, if the user is currently
logged in, they can run the following command:
$ su - <username>
Note, the above step is recommended over "newgrp - share" since currently
newgrp in FC2,FC3, and FC4 gets access to the group but the umask is not
correctly formed.
As root you can test their account.
$ su - <username> "You need to '-' to pickup thier environment '$ su - chirico' "
Note: SUID, SGID, Sticky bit. Only the left most octet is examined, and "chmod 755" is used
as an example of the full command. But, anything else could be used as well. Normally
you'd want executable permissions.
Octal digit Binary value Meaning Example usage
0 000 all cleared $ chmod 0755 or chmod 755
1 001 sticky $ chmod 1755
2 010 setgid $ chmod 2755
3 011 setgid, sticky $ chmod 3755
4 100 setuid $ chmod 4755
5 101 setuid, sticky $ chmod 5755
6 110 setuid, setgid $ chmod 6755
7 111 setuid, setgid, sticky $ chmod 7755
A few examples applied to a directory below. In the first example all users in the group can
add files to directory "dirA" and they can delete their own files. Users cannot delete other
user's files.
Sticky bit:
$ chmod 1770 dirA
Below files created within the directory have the group ID of the directory, rather than that
of the default group setting for the user who created the file.
Set group ID bit:
$ chmod 2755 dirB
TIP 7:
Getting Infomation on Commands
The "info" is a great utility for getting information about the system.
Here's a quick key on using "info" from the terminal prompt.
'q' exits.
'u' moves up to the table of contents of the current section.
'n' moves to the next chapter.
'p' moves to the previous chapter.
'space' goes into the selected section.
The following is a good starting point:
$ info coreutils
Need to find out what a certain program does?
$ whatis open
open (2) - open and possibly create a file or device
open (3) - perl pragma to set default PerlIO layers for input and output
open (3pm) - perl pragma to set default PerlIO layers for input and output
open (n) - Open a file-based or command pipeline channel
To get specific information about the open commmand
$ man 2 open
also try 'keyword' search, which is the same as the apropos command.
For example, to find all the man pages on selinux, type the following:
$ man -k selinux
or the man full word search. Same as whatis command.
$ man -f <some string>
This is a hint once you are inside man.
space moves forward one page
b moves backward
y scrolls up one line "yikes, I missed it!"
g goes to the beginning
q quits
/<string> search, repeat seach n
m mark, enter a letter like "a", then, ' to go back
' enter a letter that is marked.
To get section numbers
$ man 8 ping
Note the numbers are used as follows
(This is OpenBSD)
1 General Commands
2 System Calls and Error Numbers
3 C Libraries
3p perl
4 Devices and device drivers
5 File Formats and config files
6 Game instructions
7 Miscellaneous information
8 System maintenance
9 Kernel internals
To find the man page directly, "ls" command:
$ whereis -m ls
ls: /usr/share/man/man1/ls.1.gz /usr/share/man/man1/ls.1 /usr/share/man/man1p/ls.1p
To read this file directly, do the following:
$ man /usr/share/man/man1/ls.1.gz
If you want to know the manpath, execute manpath.
$ manpath
/usr/share/man:/usr/X11R6/man:/usr/local/share/man:/usr/local/pgsql/man:/usr/man:/usr/local/man
TIP 8:
How to Put a "Running Job" in the Background.
You're running a job at the terminal prompt, and it's taking
a very long time. You want to put the job in the backgroud.
"CTL - z" Temporarily suspends the job
$ jobs This will list all the jobs
$ bg %jobnumber (bg %1) To run in the background
$ fg %jobnumber To bring back in the foreground
Need to kill all jobs -- say you're using several suspended
emacs sessions and you just want everything to exit.
$ kill -9 `jobs -p`
The "jobs -p" gives the process number of each job, and the
kill -9 kills everything. Yes, sometimes "kill -9" is excessive
and you should issue a "kill -15" that allows jobs to clean-up.
However, for exacs session, I prefer "kill -9" and haven't had
a problem.
Sometimes you need to list the process id along with job
information. For instance, here's process id with the listing.
$ jobs -l
Note you can also renice a job, or give it lower priority.
$ nice -n +15 find . -ctime 2 -type f -exec ls {} \; > last48hours
^z
$ bg
So above that was a ctl-z to suppend. Then, bg to run it in
the background. Now, if you want to change the priority lower
you just renice it, once you know the process id.
$ jobs -pl
[1]+ 29388 Running nice -n +15 find . -ctime 2 -exec ls -l {} \; >mout &
$ renice +30 -p 29388
29388: old priority 15, new priority 19
19 was the lowest priority for this job. You cannot increase
the priority unless you are root.
TIP 9:
Need to Delete a File for Good -- not even GOD can recover.
You have a file "secret". The following makes it so no one
can read it. If the file was 12 bytes, it's now 4096 after it
has been over written 100 times. There's no way to recover this.
$ shred -n 100 -z secret
Want to remove the file? Use the "u" option.
$ shred -n 100 -z -u test2
It can be applied to a device
$ shred -n 100 -z -u /dev/fd0
CAUTION: Note that shred relies on a very important assumption: that the file system overwrites data
in place. This is the traditional way to do things, but many modern file system designs do not sat-
isfy this assumption. The following are examples of file systems on which shred is not effective, or
is not guaranteed to be effective in all file system modes:
* log-structured or journaled file systems, such as those supplied with
AIX and Solaris (and JFS, ReiserFS, XFS, Ext3, etc.)
Also see (TIP 52).
TIP 10:
Who and What is doing What on Your System - finding open sockets,
files etc.
$ lsof
or as root
$ watch lsof -i
To list all open Internet files, use:
$ lsof -i -U
You can also get very specific about ports. Do this as root for low
ports.
$ lsof -i TCP:3306
Or, look at UDP ports as follows:
$ lsof -i UDP:1812
(See TIP 118)
Also try fuser. Suppose you have a mounted file-system, and you need
to umount it. To list the users on the file-system /work
$ fuser -u /work
To kill all processes accessing the file system /work in any way.
$ fuser -km /work
Or better yet, maybe you want to eject a cdrom on /mnt/cdrom
$ fuser -km /mnt/cdrom
If you need IO load information about your system, you can execute
iostat. But note, the very first iostat gives a snapshot since
the last boot. You typically want the following command, which gives
you 3 outputs every 5 seconds.
$ iostat -xtc 5 3
Linux 2.6.12-1.1376_FC3smp (squeezel.squeezel.com) 10/05/2005
Time: 07:05:04 PM
avg-cpu: %user %nice %system %iowait %idle
0.97 0.06 1.94 0.62 96.41
Time: 07:05:09 PM
avg-cpu: %user %nice %system %iowait %idle
0.60 0.00 1.70 0.00 97.70
Time: 07:05:14 PM
avg-cpu: %user %nice %system %iowait %idle
1.00 0.00 1.60 0.00 97.39
vmstat reports memory statistics. See tip 241 for vmstat for
I/O subsystem total statistics.
$ vmstat
$ ifconfig
$ cat /proc/sys/vm/.. (entries under here)
*NOTE: (TIP 77) shows sample usage of "ifconfig". Also
(TIP 84) shows sample output of "$ cat /proc/cpuinfo". You can download iostat
and other packages from (http://perso.wanadoo.fr/sebastien.godard/download_en.html).
You also may want to look at iozone (TIP 178).
Also
$ cat /proc/meminfo
$ cat /proc/stat
$ cat /proc/uptime
1078623.55 1048008.34 First number is the number of seconds since boot.
The second number is the number of idle seconds.
$ cat /proc/loadavg
0.25 0.14 0.10 1/166 7778 This shows load at 1,5, and 15 minutes,
a total of 1 current running process out
from a total of 166. The 7778 is the last
process id used.
Ref: http://www.teamquest.com/resources/gunther/ldavg1.shtml
Or current process open file descriptors
$ ls -l /proc/self/fd/0
lrwx------ 1 chirico chirico 64 Jun 29 13:17 0 -> /dev/pts/51
lrwx------ 1 chirico chirico 64 Jun 29 13:17 1 -> /dev/pts/51
lrwx------ 1 chirico chirico 64 Jun 29 13:17 2 -> /dev/pts/51
lr-x------ 1 chirico chirico 64 Jun 29 13:17 3 -> /proc/26667/fd
So you could, $ echo "stuff" > /dev/pts/51, to get output. Note, tree is also
helpful here:
$ tree /proc/self
/proc/self
|-- auxv
|-- cmdline
|-- cwd -> /work/souptonuts/documentation/theBook
|-- environ
|-- exe -> /usr/bin/tree
|-- fd
| |-- 0 -> /dev/pts/51
| |-- 1 -> /dev/pts/51
| |-- 2 -> /dev/pts/51
| `-- 3 -> /proc/26668/fd
|-- maps
|-- mem
|-- mounts
|-- root -> /
|-- stat
|-- statm
|-- status
|-- task
| `-- 26668
| |-- auxv
| |-- cmdline
| |-- cwd -> /work/souptonuts/documentation/theBook
| |-- environ
| |-- exe -> /usr/bin/tree
| |-- fd
| | |-- 0 -> /dev/pts/51
| | |-- 1 -> /dev/pts/51
| | |-- 2 -> /dev/pts/51
| | `-- 3 -> /proc/26668/task/26668/fd
| |-- maps
| |-- mem
| |-- mounts
| |-- root -> /
| |-- stat
| |-- statm
| |-- status
| `-- wchan
`-- wchan
10 directories, 28 files
Need a listing of the system settings?
$ sysctl -a
Need IPC (Shared Memory Segments, Semaphore Arrays, Message Queue) status
etc?
$ ipcs
$ ipcs -l "This gives limits"
Need to "watch" everything a user does? The following watches donkey.
$ watch lsof -u donkey
Or, to see what in going on in directory "/work/junk"
$ watch lsof +D /work/junk
TIP 11:
How to make a File "immutable" or "unalterable" -- it cannot be changed
or deleted even by root. Note this works on (ext2/ext3) filesystems.
And, yes, root can delete after it's changed back.
As root:
$ chattr +i filename
And to change it back:
$ chattr -i filename
List attributes
$ lsattr filename
TIP 12:
SSH - How to Generate the Key Pair.
On the local server
$ ssh-keygen -t dsa -b 2048
This will create the two files:
.ssh/id_dsa (Private key)
.ssh/id_dsa.pub (Public key you can share)
Next insert ".ssh/id_dsa.pub" on the remote server
in the file ".ssh/authorized_keys" and ".ssh/authorized_keys2"
and change the permission of each file to (chmod 600). Plus, make
sure the directory ".ssh" exists on the remote computer with 700 rights.
Ok, assuming 192.168.1.155 is the remote server and "donkey" is the
account on that remote server.
$ ssh [email protected] "mkdir -p .ssh"
$ ssh [email protected] "chmod 700 .ssh"
$ scp ./.ssh/id_dsa.pub [email protected]:.ssh/newkey.pub
Now connect to that remote server "192.168.1.155" and add .ssh/newkey.pub
to both "authorized_keys" and "authorized_keys2". When done, the permission
on
(This is on the remote server)
$chmod 600 .ssh/authorized_key*
Next, go back to the local server and issue the following:
$ ssh-agent $SHELL
$ ssh-add
The "ssh-add" will allow you to enter the passphrase and it will
save it for the current login session.
You don't have to enter a password when running "ssh-keygen" above. But,
remember anyone with root access can "su - <username>" and then connect
to your computers. It's harder, however, not impossible, for root to do
this if you have a password.
(Reference TIP 151)
Below is a quick shell command to distribute ssh keys. I find
this command to be very useful.
$ cat ~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub|ssh remoteserver "cat - >> ~/.ssh/authorized_keys"
TIP 13:
Securing the System: Don't allow root to login remotely. Instead,
the admin could login as another account, then, "su -". However,
root can still login "from the local terminal".
In the "/etc/ssh/sshd_config" file change the following lines:
Protocol 2
PermitRootLogin no
PermitEmptyPasswords no
Then, restart ssh
/etc/init.d/sshd restart
Why would you want to do this? It's not possible for anyone to guess
or keep trying the root account. This is especially good for computers
on the Internet. So, even if the "root" passwords is known, they can't
get access to the system remotely. Only from the terminal, which is locked
in your computer room. However, if anyone has a account on the server,
then, they can login under their account then "su -".
Suppose you only want a limited number of users: "mchirico" and "donkey".
Add the following line to "/etc/ssh/sshd_config". Note, this allows access
for chirico and donkey, but everyone else is denied.
# Once you add AllowUsers - everyone else is denied.
AllowUsers mchirico donkey
TIP 14:
Keep Logs Longer with Less Space.
Normally logs rotate monthly, over writing all the old data. Here's a
sample "/etc/logrotate.conf" that will keep 12 months of backup
compressing the logfiles
$ cat /etc/logrotate.conf
# see "man logrotate" for details
# rotate log files weekly
#chirico changes to monthly
monthly
# keep 4 weeks worth of backlogs
# keep 12 months of backup
rotate 12
# create new (empty) log files after rotating old ones
create
# uncomment this if you want your log files compressed
compress
# RPM packages drop log rotation information into this directory
include /etc/logrotate.d
# no packages own wtmp -- we'll rotate them here
/var/log/wtmp {
monthly
create 0664 root utmp
rotate 1
}
# system-specific logs may be also be configured here.
Note: see tip 1. The clock should always be correctly set.
TIP 15:
What Network Services are Running?
$ netstat -tanup
or if you just want tcp services
$ netstat -tanp
or
$ netstat -ap|grep LISTEN|less
This can be helpful to determine the services running.
Need stats on dropped UDP packets?
$ netstat -s -u
or TCP
$ netstat -s -t
or summary of everything
$ netstat -s
or looking for error rates on the interface?
$ netstat -i
Listening interfaces?
$ netstat -l
(Tip above provided by Amos Shapira)
Also see TIP 77.
TIP 16:
Apache: Creating and Using an ".htaccess" File
Below is a sample ".htaccess" file which goes in
"/usr/local/apache/htdocs/chirico/alpha/.htaccess" for this
example
AuthUserFile /usr/local/apache/htdocs/chirico/alpha/.htpasswd
AuthGroupFile /dev/null
AuthName "Your Name and regular password required"
AuthType Basic
<Limit GET POST>
require valid-user
</Limit>
In order for this to work /usr/local/apache/conf/httpd.conf must
have the following line in it:
#
<Directory /usr/local/apache/htdocs/chirico/alpha>
AllowOverride FileInfo AuthConfig Limit
Options MultiViews Indexes SymLinksIfOwnerMatch IncludesNoExec
<Limit GET POST OPTIONS PROPFIND>
Order allow,deny
Allow from all
</Limit>
<LimitExcept GET POST OPTIONS PROPFIND>
Order deny,allow
Deny from all
</LimitExcept>
</Directory>
Also, a password file must be created
$ /usr/local/apache/bin/htpasswd -c .htpasswd chirico
And enter the user names and passwords.
Next Reload Apache:
$ /etc/init.d/httpd reload
(Reference TIP 213 limit access to certain directories based on IP address).
TIP 17:
Working with "mt" Commands: reading and writing to tape.
The following assumes the tape device is "/dev/st0"
STEP 1 ( rewind the tape)
# mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind
STEP 2 (check to see if you are at block 0)
# mt -f /dev/nst0 tell
At block 0.
STEP 3 (Backup "tar compress" directories "one" and "two")
# tar -czf /dev/nst0 one two
STEP 4 (Check to see what block you are at)
# mt -f /dev/nst0 tell
You should get something like block 2 at this point.
STEP 5 (Rewind the tape)
# mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind
STEP 6 (List the files)
# tar -tzf /dev/nst0
one/
one/test
two/
STEP 7 (Restore directory "one" into directory "junk"). Note, you
have to first rewind the tape, since the last operation moved
ahead 2 blocks. Check this with "mt -f /dev/nst0".
# cd junk
# mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind
# mt -f /dev/nst0 tell
At block 0.
# tar -xzf /dev/nst0 one
STEP 8 (Next, take a look to see what block the tape is at)
# mt -f /dev/nst0 tell
At block 2.
STEP 9 (Now backup directories three and four)
# tar -czf /dev/nst0 three four
After backing up the files, the tape should be past block 2.
Check this.
# mt -f /dev/nst0 tell
At block 4.
Currently the following exist:
At block 1:
one/
one/test
two/
At block 2:
three/
three/samplehere
four/
At block 4:
(* This is empty *)
A few notes. You can set the blocking factor and a label
with tar. For example:
$ tar --label="temp label" --create --blocking-factor=128 --file=/dev/nst0 Notes
But note if you try to read it with the default, incorrect blocking
factor, then, you will get the following error:
$ tar -t --file=/dev/nst0
tar: /dev/nst0: Cannot read: Cannot allocate memory
tar: At beginning of tape, quitting now
tar: Error is not recoverable: exiting now
However this is easily fixed with the correct blocking factor
$ mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind
$ tar -t --blocking-factor=128 --file=/dev/nst0
temp label
Notes
Take advantage of the label command.
$ MYCOMMENTS="Big_important_tape"
$ tar --label="$(date +%F)"+"${MYCOMMENTS}"
Writing to tape on a remote 192.168.1.155 computer
$ tar cvzf - ./tmp | ssh -l chirico 192.168.1.155 '(mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind; dd of=/dev/st0 )'
Restoring the contents from tape on a remote computer
$ ssh -l chirico 192.168.1.155 '(mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind; dd if=/dev/st0 )'|tar xzf -
Getting data off of tape with dd command with odd blocking factor. Just set ibs very high
$ mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind
$ tar --label="Contenets of Notes" --create --blocking-factor=128 --file=/dev/nst0 Notes
$ mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind
$ dd ibs=1048576 if=/dev/st0 of=notes.tar
The above will probably work with ibs=64k as well
(Also see TIP 136)
TIP 18:
Encrypting Data to Tape using "tar" and "openssl".
The following shows an example of writing the contents of "tapetest" to tape:
$ tar zcvf - tapetest|openssl des3 -salt -k secretpassword | dd of=/dev/st0
Reading the data back:
$ dd if=/dev/st0|openssl des3 -d -k secretpassword|tar xzf -
TIP 19:
Mounting an ISO Image as a Filesystem -- this is great if you don't have the DVD
hardware, but, need to get at the data. The following show an example of
mounting the Fedora core 2 as a file.
$ mkdir /iso0
$ mount -o loop -t iso9660 /FC2-i386-DVD.iso /iso0
Or to mount automatically at boot, add the following to "/etc/fstab"
/FC2-i386-DVD.iso /iso0 iso9660 rw,loop 0 0
Reference: http://umn.dl.sourceforge.net/sourceforge/souptonuts/README_fedora.txt
TIP 20:
Getting Information about the Hard drive and list all PCI devices.
$ hdparm /dev/hda
/dev/hda:
multcount = 16 (on)
IO_support = 0 (default 16-bit)
unmaskirq = 0 (off)
using_dma = 1 (on)
keepsettings = 0 (off)
readonly = 0 (off)
readahead = 256 (on)
geometry = 16383/255/63, sectors = 234375000, start = 0
or for SCSI
$ hdparm /dev/sda
Try it with the -i option for information
$ hdparm -i /dev/hda
/dev/hda:
Model=IC35L120AVV207-1, FwRev=V24OA66A, SerialNo=VNVD09G4CZ6E0T
Config={ HardSect NotMFM HdSw>15uSec Fixed DTR>10Mbs }
RawCHS=16383/16/63, TrkSize=0, SectSize=0, ECCbytes=52
BuffType=DualPortCache, BuffSize=7965kB, MaxMultSect=16, MultSect=16
CurCHS=16383/16/63, CurSects=16514064, LBA=yes, LBAsects=234375000
IORDY=on/off, tPIO={min:240,w/IORDY:120}, tDMA={min:120,rec:120}
PIO modes: pio0 pio1 pio2 pio3 pio4
DMA modes: mdma0 mdma1 mdma2
UDMA modes: udma0 udma1 udma2 udma3 udma4 *udma5
AdvancedPM=yes: disabled (255) WriteCache=enabled
Drive conforms to: ATA/ATAPI-6 T13 1410D revision 3a: 2 3 4 5 6
How fast is your drive?
$ hdparm -tT /dev/hda
/dev/hda:
Timing buffer-cache reads: 128 MB in 0.41 seconds =315.32 MB/sec
Timing buffered disk reads: 64 MB in 1.19 seconds = 53.65 MB/sec
Need to find your device?
$ mount
or
$ cat /proc/partitions
or
$ dmesg | egrep '^(s|h)d'
which for my system lists:
hda: IC35L120AVV207-1, ATA DISK drive
hdc: Lite-On LTN486S 48x Max, ATAPI CD/DVD-ROM drive
hda: max request size: 1024KiB
hda: 234375000 sectors (120000 MB) w/7965KiB Cache, CHS=16383/255/63, UDMA(100)
By the way, if you want to turn on dma
$ hdparm -d1 /dev/hda
setting using_dma to 1 (on)
using_dma = 1 (on)
(Also see TIP 122 )
List all PCI devices
$ lspci -v
00:00.0 Host bridge: Intel Corp. 82845G/GL [Brookdale-G] Chipset Host Bridge (rev
Subsystem: Dell Computer Corporation: Unknown device 0160
Flags: bus master, fast devsel, latency 0
Memory at f0000000 (32-bit, prefetchable) [size=128M]
Capabilities: <available only to root>
... lots more ...
Note, there is also lspci -vv for even more information.
(Also see TIP 200)
TIP 21:
Setting up "cron" Jobs.
If you want to use the emacs editor for editing cron jobs, then,
set the following in your "/home/user/.bash_profile"
EDITOR=emacs
Then, to edit cron jobs
$ crontab -e
You may want to put in the following header
#MINUTE(0-59) HOUR(0-23) DAYOFMONTH(1-31) MONTHOFYEAR(1-12) DAYOFWEEK(0-6) Note 0=Sun and 7=Sun
#
#14,15 10 * * 0 /usr/bin/somecommmand >/dev/null 2>&1
The sample "commented out command" will run at 10:14 and 10:15 every Sunday. There will
be no "mail" sent to the user because of the ">/dev/null 2>&1" entry.
$ crontab -l
The above will list all cron jobs. Or if you're root
$ crontab -l -u <username>
$ crontab -e -u <username>
Reference "man 5 crontab":
The time and date fields are:
field allowed values
----- --------------
minute 0-59
hour 0-23
day of month 1-31
month 1-12 (or names, see below)
day of week 0-7 (0 or 7 is Sun, or use names)
A field may be an asterisk (*), which always stands for ``first-last''.
Ranges of numbers are allowed. Ranges are two numbers separated with a
hyphen. The specified range is inclusive. For example, 8-11 for an
``hours'' entry specifies execution at hours 8, 9, 10 and 11.
Lists are allowed. A list is a set of numbers (or ranges) separated by
commas. Examples: ``1,2,5,9'', ``0-4,8-12''.
Ranges can include "steps", so "1-9/2" is the same as "1,3,5,7,9".
Note, you can run just every 5 minutes as follows:
*/5 * * * * /etc/mrtg/domrtg >/dev/null 2>&1
To run jobs hourly,daily,weekly or monthly you can add shell scripts into the
appropriate directory:
/etc/cron.hourly/
/etc/cron.daily/
/etc/cron.weekly/
/etc/cron.monthly/
Note that the above are pre-configured schedules set in "/etc/crontab", so
if you want, you can change the schedule. Below is my /etc/crontab:
$ cat /etc/crontab
SHELL=/bin/bash
PATH=/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin
MAILTO=root
HOME=/
# run-parts
01 * * * * root run-parts /etc/cron.hourly
02 4 * * * root run-parts /etc/cron.daily
22 4 * * 0 root run-parts /etc/cron.weekly
42 4 1 * * root run-parts /etc/cron.monthly
TIP 22:
Keeping Files in Sync Between Servers.
The remote computer is "192.168.1.171" and has the account "donkey". You want
to "keep in sync" the files under "/home/cu2000/Logs" on the remote computer
with files on "/home/chirico/dev/MEDIA_Server" on the local computer.
$ rsync -Lae ssh [email protected]:/home/cu2000/Logs /home/chirico/dev/MEDIA_Server
"rsync" is a convient command for keeping files in sync, and as shown here will work
through ssh. The -L option tells rsync to treat symbolic links like ordinary files.
Also see [http://www.rsnapshot.org/]
TIP 23:
Looking up the Spelling of a Word.
$ look <partial spelling>
so the following will list all words that
start with stuff
$ look stuff
stuff
stuffage
stuffata
stuffed
stuffender
stuffer
stuffers
stuffgownsman
stuffier
stuffiest
stuffily
stuffiness
stuffinesses
stuffiness's
stuffing
stuffings
stuffing's
stuffless
stuffs
stuffy
It helps to have a large "linuxwords" dictionary. You can download
a much bigger dictionary from the following:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/linuxwords.1.tar.gz?download
Note: vim users can setup the .vimrc file with the following. Now when you type
CTL-X CTL-T in insert mode, you'll get a thesaurus lookup.
set dictionary+=/usr/share/dict/words
set thesaurus+=/usr/share/dict/words
Or, you can call aspell with the F6 command after putting the folling entry in your
.vimrc file
:nmap <F6> :w<CR>:!aspell -e -c %<CR>:e<CR>
Now, hit F6 when you're in vim, and you'll get a spell checker.
There is also an X Windows dictionary that runs with the following command.
$ gnome-dictionary
TIP 24:
Find out if a Command is Aliased.
$ type -all <command>
Example:
$ type -all ls
ls is aliased to `ls --color=tty'
ls is /bin/ls
TIP 25:
Create a Terminal Calculator
Put the following in your .bashrc file
function calc
{
echo "${1}"|bc -l;
}
Or, run it at the shell prompt. Now
"calc" from the shell will work as follows:
$ calc 3+45
48
All functions with a "(" or ")" must be enclosed
in quotes. For instance, to get the sin of .4
$ calc "s(.4)"
.38941834230865049166
(See TIP 115 using the expr command)
TIP 26:
Kill a User and All Their Current Processes.
#!/bin/bash
# This program will kill all processes from a
# user. The user name is read from the command line.
#
# This program also demonstrates reading a bash variable
# into an awk script.
#
# Usage: kill9user <user>
#
kill -9 `ps aux|awk -v var=$1 '$1==var { print $2 }'`
or if you want want to create the above script the command
below will kill the user "donkey" and all of his processes.
$ kill -9 `ps aux|awk -v var="donkey" '$1==var { print $2 }'`
Check their cron jobs and "at" jobs, if you have a security issue.
$ crontab -u <user> -e
Lock the account:
$ passwd -l <user>
Remove all authorized_keys
$ rm /home/user/.shosts
$ rm /home/user/.rhosts
$ rm -rf /home/user/.ssh
$ rm /home/user/.forward
or consider
$ mv /home/user /home/safeuser
Change the shell
$ chsh -s /bin/true <user>
Do an inventory
$ find / -user <user> > list_of_user_files
NOTE: Also see (TIP 10).
To see all users, except the current user. Do not use the
dash "ps -aux" is wrong but the following is correct:
$ ps aux| awk '!/'${USER}'/{printf("%s \n",$0)}'
or (ww = wide, wide output)
$ ps auwwx| awk '!/'${USER}'/{printf("%s \n",$0)}'
The following codes may be useful:
D Uninterruptible sleep (usually IO)
R Running or runnable (on run queue)
S Interruptible sleep (waiting for an event to complete)
T Stopped, either by a job control signal or because it is being traced.
W paging (not valid since the 2.6.xx kernel)
X dead (should never be seen)
Z Defunct ("zombie") process, terminated but not reaped by its parent.
For BSD formats and when the stat keyword is used, additional
characters may be displayed:
< high-priority (not nice to other users)
N low-priority (nice to other users)
L has pages locked into memory (for real-time and custom IO)
s is a session leader
l is multi-threaded (using CLONE_THREAD, like NPTL pthreads do)
+ is in the foreground process group
Also see TIP 28. and TIP 89.
TIP 27:
Format Dates for Logs and Files
$ date "+%m%d%y %A,%B %d %Y %X"
061704 Thursday,June 17 2004 07:13:40 PM
$ date "+%m%d%Y"
06172004
$ date -d '1 day ago' "+%m%d%Y"
06162004
$ date -d '3 months 1 day 2 hour 15 minutes 2 seconds ago'
or to go into the future remove the "ago"
$ date -d '3 months 1 day 2 hour 15 minutes 2 seconds '
Also the following works:
$ date -d '+2 year +1 month -1 week +3 day -8 hour +2 min -5 seconds'
Quick question: If there are 100,000,000 stars in the visible sky, and you can
count them, round the clock, at a rate of a star per second starting now, when
would you finish counting? Would you still be alive?
$ date -d '+100000000 seconds'
Sooner than you think!
This can be assigned to variables
$ mdate=`date -d '3 months 1 day 2 hour 15 minutes 2 seconds ' "+%m%d%Y_%A_%B_%D_%Y_%X" `
$ echo $mdate
09182004_Saturday_September_09/18/04_2004_09:40:41 PM
^---- Easy to sort ^-------^----- Easy to read
See TIP 28 below.
See TIP 87 when working with large delta time changes -40 years, or -200 years ago, or even
1,000,000 days into the future.
Also see (TIP 1) for working with time zones.
See TIP 240 for converting epoch seconds to local time.
TIP 28:
Need Ascii Codes? For instance, for printing quotes:
awk 'BEGIN { msg = "Don\047t Panic!"; printf "%s \n",msg }'
or
awk 'BEGIN { msg = "Don\x027t Panic!"; printf "%s \n",msg }'
It's better to use \047, because certain characters that follow \x027 may cause problems.
For example, take a look at the following two lines. The first line prints a "}" caused
by the extra D in \x027D. The the line immediately below does not work as expected.
awk 'BEGIN {printf("The D causes problems \x027D\n")}'
However, the line below works fine:
awk 'BEGIN {printf("The D does not cause problems \047D\n")}'
Or if you wanted to use the date command in "awk" to print date.time.nanosecond.timezone for
each line of a file "test".
The following date can be used in awk because the single quotes are enclosed within the
double quotes.
date '+%m%d%Y.%H%M%S.%N%z'
$ awk 'BEGIN { "date '+%m%d%Y.%H%M%S.%N%z'" | getline MyDate } { print MyDate,$0 }' < data
But it's also possible to replace "+" with \x2B, "%" with \x25, and "d" with \x64 as follows:
$ awk 'BEGIN { "date \x27\x2B\x25m\x25\x64\x25Y.\x25H\x25M\x25S.\x25N\x25z\x27" | getline MyDate } { print MyDate,$0 }' < test
07062004.113820.346033000-0400 bob 71
07062004.113820.346033000-0400 tom 43
07062004.113820.346033000-0400 sal 34
07062004.113820.346033000-0400 bob 89
07062004.113820.346033000-0400 tom 66
07062004.113820.346033000-0400 sal 99
For this example it's not needed because single quotes are used inside of double quotes; however, there may be times when
hex replacement is easier.
$ man ascii
Oct Dec Hex Char Oct Dec Hex Char
-----------------------------------------------------------
000 0 00 NUL '\0' 100 64 40 @
001 1 01 SOH 101 65 41 A
002 2 02 STX 102 66 42 B
003 3 03 ETX 103 67 43 C
004 4 04 EOT 104 68 44 D
005 5 05 ENQ 105 69 45 E
006 6 06 ACK 106 70 46 F
007 7 07 BEL '\a' 107 71 47 G
010 8 08 BS '\b' 110 72 48 H
011 9 09 HT '\t' 111 73 49 I
012 10 0A LF '\n' 112 74 4A J
013 11 0B VT '\v' 113 75 4B K
014 12 0C FF '\f' 114 76 4C L
015 13 0D CR '\r' 115 77 4D M
016 14 0E SO 116 78 4E N
017 15 0F SI 117 79 4F O
020 16 10 DLE 120 80 50 P
021 17 11 DC1 121 81 51 Q
022 18 12 DC2 122 82 52 R
023 19 13 DC3 123 83 53 S
024 20 14 DC4 124 84 54 T
025 21 15 NAK 125 85 55 U
026 22 16 SYN 126 86 56 V
027 23 17 ETB 127 87 57 W
030 24 18 CAN 130 88 58 X
031 25 19 EM 131 89 59 Y
032 26 1A SUB 132 90 5A Z
033 27 1B ESC 133 91 5B [
034 28 1C FS 134 92 5C \ '\\'
035 29 1D GS 135 93 5D ]
036 30 1E RS 136 94 5E ^
037 31 1F US 137 95 5F _
040 32 20 SPACE 140 96 60 `
041 33 21 ! 141 97 61 a
042 34 22 " 142 98 62 b
043 35 23 # 143 99 63 c
044 36 24 $ 144 100 64 d
045 37 25 % 145 101 65 e
046 38 26 & 146 102 66 f
047 39 27 ' 147 103 67 g
050 40 28 ( 150 104 68 h
051 41 29 ) 151 105 69 i
052 42 2A * 152 106 6A j
053 43 2B + 153 107 6B k
054 44 2C , 154 108 6C l
055 45 2D - 155 109 6D m
056 46 2E . 156 110 6E n
057 47 2F / 157 111 6F o
060 48 30 0 160 112 70 p
061 49 31 1 161 113 71 q
062 50 32 2 162 114 72 r
063 51 33 3 163 115 73 s
064 52 34 4 164 116 74 t
065 53 35 5 165 117 75 u
066 54 36 6 166 118 76 v
067 55 37 7 167 119 77 w
070 56 38 8 170 120 78 x
071 57 39 9 171 121 79 y
072 58 3A : 172 122 7A z
073 59 3B ; 173 123 7B {
074 60 3C < 174 124 7C |
075 61 3D = 175 125 7D }
076 62 3E > 176 126 7E ~
077 63 3F ? 177 127 7F DEL
TIP 29:
Need a WWW Browser for the Terminal Session? Try lynx or elinks.
$ lynx
Or to read all these tips, with the latest updates
$ lynx http://umn.dl.sourceforge.net/sourceforge/souptonuts/How_to_Linux_and_Open_Source.txt
Or, better yet elinks.
$ elinks http://somepage.
You can get elinks at the following site:
http://elinks.or.cz/
TIP 30:
screen - screen manager with VT100/ANSI terminal emulation
This is an excellent utility. But if you work a lot in Emacs,
then, you should place the following in your ~/.bashrc
alias s='screen -e^Pa -D -R'
After loging in again (or source .bashrc) ,
type the following to load "screen":
$ s
If you're using the not using the alias command above, substitute
CTL-a for CTL-p below. :
CTL-p CTL-C To get a new session
CTL-p " To list sessions, and arrow keys to move
CTL-p SHFT-A To name sessions
CTL-p S To split screens
CLT-p Q To unsplit screens
CLT-p TAB To switch between screens
CLT-p :resize n To resize screen to n rows, on split screen
Screen is very powerful. Should you become disconneced, you can
still resume work after loggin in.
$ man screen
The above command will give you more information.
TIP 31:
Need to Find the Factors of a Number?
$ factor 2345678992
2345678992: 2 2 2 2 6581 22277
It's a quick way to find out if a number is prime
$ factor 7867
7867: 7867
TIP 32:
Less is More -- piping to less to scroll backword and forward
For large "ls" listings try the followin, then, use the arrow key
to move up and down the list.
$ ls /some_large_dir/ | less
or
$ cat some_large_file | less
or
$ less some_large_file
TIP 33:
C "indent" Settings for Kernel Development
$ indent -kr -i8 program.c
TIP 34:
FTP auto-login. "ftp" to a site and have the password stored.
For instance, here's a sample ".net" file in a user's home
directory for uploading to sourceforge. Note, sourceforge will
take any password, so [email protected] is used here for login "anonymous".
$ cat ~/.netrc
machine upload.sourceforge.net login anonymous password [email protected]
default login anonymous password user@site
It might be a good idea to change the rights on this file
$ chmod 0400 ~/.netrc
#!/bin/bash
#
# Sample ftp automated script to download
# file to ${dwnld}
#
dwnld="/work/faq/unix-faq"
cd ${dwnld}
ftp << FTPSTRING
prompt off
open rtfm.mit.edu
cd /pub/usenet-by-group/news.answers/unix-faq/faq
mget contents
mget diff
mget part*
bye
FTPSTRING
Sourceforge uses an anonymous login with an email address as
a password. Below is the automated script I use for uploading
binary files.
#!/bin/bash
# ftp sourceforge auto upload ftpup.sh
# Usage: ./ftpup.sh <filename>
#
# machine upload.sourceforge.net user anonymous [email protected]
ftp -n -u << FTPSTRING
open upload.sourceforge.net
user anonymous [email protected]
binary
cd incoming
put ${1}
bye
FTPSTRING
(Also see TIP 114 for ncftpget, which is a very powerful restarting
ftp program)
TIP 35:
Bash Brace Expansion
$ echo f{ee,ie,oe,um}
fee fie foe fum
This works with almost any command
$ mkdir -p /work/junk/{one,two,three,four}
TIP 36:
Getting a List of User Accounts on the System
$ cut -d: -f1 /etc/passwd | sort
Note (Thanks to Philip Vanmontfort) you can also do the following:
$ getent passwd|cut -d: -f1|sort
TIP 37:
Editing a Bash Command
Try typing a long command say, then, type "fc" for an easy way
to edit the command.
$ find /etc -iname '*.cnf' -exec grep -H 'log' {} \;
$ fc
"fc" will bring the last command typed into an editor, "emacs" if
that's the default editor. Type "fc -l" to list last few commands.
To seach for a command, try typing "CTL-r" at the shell prompt for
searching. "CTL-t" to transpose, say "sl" was typed by you want "ls".
Hints when using "fc: in emacs:
ESC-b move one word backward
ESC-f move one word forward
ESC-DEL kill one word backward
CTL-k kill point to end
CTL-y un-yank killed region at point
TIP 38:
Moving around Directories.
Change to the home directory:
$ cd ~
or
$ cd
To go back to the last directory
$ cd -
Instead of "cd" to a directory try "pushd" and look
at the heading...you can see a list of directories.
$ pushd /etc
$ pushd /usr/local
Then, to get back "popd" or "popd 1"
To list all the directories pushed on the stack
use the "dirs -v" command.
$ dirs -v
0 /usr/local
1 /etc
2 /work/souptonuts/documentation/theBook
Now, if you "pushd +1" you will be moved to "/etc", since
is number "1" on the stack, and this directory will become
"0".
$ pwd
/usr/local
$ pushd +1
$ pwd
/etc
$ dirs -v
0 /etc
1 /work/souptonuts/documentation/theBook
2 /usr/local
TIP 39:
Need an Underscore after a Variable?
Enclose the variable in "{}".
$echo ${UID}_
Compare to
$echo $UID_
Also try the following:
$ m="my stuff here"
$ echo -e ${m// /'\n'}
my
stuff
here
TIP 40:
Bash Variable Offset and String Operators
$ r="this is stuff"
$ echo ${r:3}
$ echo ${r:5:2}
Note, ${varname:offset:length}
${varname:?message} If varname exist and isn't null return value, else,
print var and message.
$ r="new stuff"
$ echo ${r:? "that's r for you"}
new stuff
$ unset r
$ echo ${r:? "that's r for you"}
bash: r: that's r for you
${varname:+word} If varname exist and not null return word. Else, return null.
${varname:-word} If varname exist and not null return value. Else, return word.
Working with arrays in bash - bash arrays.
$ unset p
$ p=(one two three)
$ echo -e "${p[@]}"
one two three
or
$ echo -e "${p[*]}"
one two three
$ echo -e "${#p[@]}"
3
$ echo -e "${p[0]}"
one
$ echo -e "${p[1]}"
two
Also see (TIP 95)
TIP 41:
Loops in Bash
The command below loops through directories listed in $PATH.
$ path=$PATH:
$ while [ $path ]; do echo " ${path%%:*} "; path=${path#*:}; done
The command below will also loop through directories in your path.
$IFS=:
$ for dir in $PATH
> do
> ls -ld $dir
> done
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Jun 10 20:16 /usr/local/bin
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Jun 13 23:12 /bin
drwxr-xr-x 3 root root 40960 Jun 12 08:00 /usr/bin
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 14 03:12 /usr/X11R6/bin
drwxrwxr-x 2 chirico chirico 4096 Jun 6 13:06 /home/chirico/bin
Other ways of doing loops:
for (( i=1; i <= 20; i++))
do
echo -n "$i "
done
Note, to do it all on one line, do the following:
$ for (( i=1; i <= 20; i++)); do echo -n "$i"; done
Below, is an example of declaring i an integer so that you do not
have to preface with let.
$ declare -i i
$ i=5;
$ while (( $i > 1 )); do
> i=i-1
> echo $i
> done
4
3
2
You can also use "while [ $i -gt 1 ]; do" in place of "while (( $i > 1 )); do"
To get a listing of all declared values
$ declare -i
Try putting a few words in the file "test"
$ while read filename; do echo "- $filename "; done < test |nl -w1
Or, using an array
declare -a Array
Array[0]="zero"
Array[1]="one"
Array[2]="two"
for i in `seq ${#Array[@]}`
do
echo $Array[$i-1]
done
Also see (TIP 95 and TIP 133).
TIP 42:
"diff" and "patch".
You have created a program "prog.c", saved as this name and also copied
to "prog.c.old". You post "prog.c" to users. Next, you make changes
to prog.c
$ diff -c prog.c.old prog.c > prog.patch
Now, users can get the latest updates by running.
$ patch < prog.patch
By the way, you can make backups of your data easily.
$ cp /etc/fstab{,.bak}
Now, you do your edits to "/etc/fstab" and if you need
to go back to the original, you can find it at
"/etc/fstab.bak".
Also consider sdiff with the -s option, to ignore spaces to
compare differences side-by-side between two files. An example
is listed below.
$ sdiff -s file1 file2
TIP 43:
"cat" the Contents of Files Listed in a File, in That Order.
SETUP (Assume you have the following)
$ cat file_of_files
file1
file2
$ cat file1
This is the data in file1
$ cat file 2
This is the data in file2
So there are 3 files here "file_of_files" which contains the name of
other files. In this case "file1" and "file2". And the contents of
"file1" and "file2" is shown above.
$ cat file_of_files|xargs cat
This is the data in file1
This is the data in file2
Also see (TIP 44, TIP 62 and TIP 235).
TIP 44:
Columns and Rows -- getting anything you want.
Assume you have the following file.
$ cat data
1 2 3
4 5
6 7 8 9 10
11 12
13 14
How to you get everything in 2 columns?
$ cat data|tr ' ' '\n'|xargs -l2
1 2
3 4
5 6
7 8
9 10
11 12
13 14
Three columns?
$ cat data|tr ' ' '\n'|xargs -l3
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
10 11 12
13 14
What's the row sum of the "three columns?"
$ cat data|tr ' ' '\n'|xargs -l3|tr ' ' '+'|bc
6
15
24
33
27
or
$ tr ' ' '\n' < data |xargs -l3|tr ' ' '+'|bc
NOTE "Steven Heiner's rule":
cat one_file | program
can always be rewritten as
program < one_file
Note: thanks to Steven Heiner (http://www.shelldorado.com/) the above can be
shortened as follows:
$ tr ' ' '\n' < data|xargs -l3|tr ' ' '+'|bc
Need to "tr" from the stdin?
$ tr "xy" "yx"| ... | ...
But there is a the "Stephane CHAZELAS" condition here
"Note that tr, sed, and awk mail fail on files containing '\0'
sed and awk have unspecified behaviors if the input
doesn't end in a '\n' (or to sum up, cat works for
binary and text files, text utilities such as sed or awk
work only for text files).
TIP 45:
Auto Directory Spelling Corrections.
To turn this on:
$ shopt -s cdspell
Now mispell a directory in the cd command.
$ cd /usk/local
^-------- still gets you to --
|
/usr/local
What other options can you set? The following will list
all the options:
$ shopt -p
TIP 46:
Record Eveything Printed on Your Terminal Screen.
$ script -a <filename>
Now start doing stuff and "everything" is appended to <filename>.
For example
$ script installation
$ (command)
$ (result)
$ ...
$ ...
$ (command)
$ (result)
$ exit
The whole session log is in the installation file that you can later
read and/or cleanup and add to a documentation.
This command can also be used to redirect the contents to another user,
but you must be root to do this.
Step 1 - find out what pts they are using.
$ w
Step 2 - Run script on that pts. After running this command below
everything you type will appear on their screen.
$ script /dev/pts/4
Thanks to [email protected] for his contribution
to this tip.
Also reference TIP 208.
TIP 47:
Monitor all Network Traffic Except Your Current ssh Connection.
$ tcpdump -i eth0 -nN -vvv -xX -s 1500 port not 22
Or to filter out port 123 as well getting the full length of the packet
(-s 0), use the following:
$ tcpdump -i eth0 -nN -vvv -xX -s 0 port not 22 and port not 123
Or to filter only a certain host say 81.169.158.205
$ tcpdump -i eth0 -nN -vvv -xX port not 22 and host 81.169.158.205
Just want ip addresses and a little bit of data, then,
use this. The "-c 20" is to stop after 20 packets.
$ tcpdump -i eth0 -nN -s 1500 port not 22 -c 20
If you're looking for sign of DOS attacks, the following show just the SYN
packets on all interfaces:
$ tcpdump 'tcp[13] & 2 == 2'
TIP 48:
Where are the GNU Reference Manuals?
http://www.gnu.org/manual/manual.html
Also worth a look the "Linux Documentation Project"
http://en.tldp.org/
and Red Hat manuals
http://www.redhat.com/docs/manuals/enterprise/
TIP 49:
Setting or Changing the Library Path.
The following contains the settings to be added or deleted
/etc/ld.so.conf
After this file is edited, you must run the following:
$ ldconfig
See "man ldconfig" for more information.
TIP 50:
Working with Libraries in C
Assume the following 3 programs:
$ cat ./src/test.c
int test(int t)
{
printf("%d\n",t);
return t;
}
$ cat ./src/prog1.c
/*
program: prog1.c
dependences: test.c
compiling this program:
gcc -o prog test.c prog1.c
Note the libpersonal include
should be remove if NOT using the
library
*/
#include <libpersonal.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int
main(int argc, char **argv)
{
test(45);
}
$ cat ./include/libpersonal.h
extern int test(int);
Prog1.c needs the test function in test.c
To compile, so that both programs work together, do the following:
$ cd src
$ gcc -o prog test.c prog1.c -I../include
However, if you want to create your own static library, then, run the following:
$ mkdir -p ../lib
$ gcc -c test.c -o ../lib/test.o
$ cd ../lib
$ ar r libpersonal.a test.o
$ ranlib libpersonal.a
or, the ar and ranlib command can be combined as follows:
$ ar rs libpersonal.a test.o
To compile the program with the static library:
$ cd ../src
$ gcc -I../include -L../lib -o prog1 prog1.c -lpersonal
The -I../include tells gcc to look in the ../include directory for
libpersonal.h. and -L../lib, tells gcc to look for the
"libpersonal.a" library.
$ cd ..
$ tree src lib include
src
|-- prog
|-- prog1
|-- prog1.c
`-- test.c
lib
|-- libpersonal.a
`-- test.o
include
`-- libpersonal.h
This was a STATIC library. Often times you will want to use a SHARED
or dynamic library.
SHARED LIBRARY:
You must recompile test.c with -fpic option.
$ cd ../lib
$ gcc -c -fpic ../src/test.c -o test.o
Next create the libpersonal.so file.
$ gcc -shared -o libpersonal.so test.o
Now, compile the source prog1.c as follows:
$ cd ../src
$ gcc -Wl,-R../lib -L../lib -I../include -o prog2 prog1.c -lpersonal
This should work fine. But, take a look at prog2 using the ldd command.
$ ldd prog2
libpersonal.so => ../lib/libpersonal.so (0x40017000)
libc.so.6 => /lib/tls/libc.so.6 (0x42000000)
/lib/ld-linux.so.2 => /lib/ld-linux.so.2 (0x40000000)
If you move the program prog2 to a different location, it will not run.
Instead you will get the following error:
prog2: error while loading shared libraries: libpersonal.so:
cannot open shared object file: No such file or directory
To fix this, you should specify the direct path to the library. And in my
case it is rather long
$ gcc -Wl,-R/work/souptonuts/documentation/theBook/lib -L../lib -I../include -o prog2 prog1.c -lpersonal
SPECIAL NOTE: The -R must always follow the -Wl. (-Wl,-R<directory>) They always go together
TIP 51:
Actively Monitor a File and Send Email when Expression Occurs.
This is a way to monitor "/var/log/messages" or any file for certain changes.
The example below actively monitors "stuff" for the work "now" and as soon as
"now" is added to the file, the contents of msg are sent to the user
[email protected]
$ tail -f stuff | \
awk ' /now/ { system("mail -s \"This is working\" [email protected] < msg") }'
Or, you can run a program, say get headings on slashdot from the program "getslash.php" which
runs on "192.168.1.155" with account "chirico". Assuming you have ssh keys setup, then, the following
will send mail from the output:
$ ssh [email protected] "./bin/getslash.php"|mail -s "Slash cron Headlines" [email protected]
See (TIP 80) for scraping the headings on slash dot and how to get a copy of "getslash.php". If you still
want to use awk:
$ ssh [email protected] "./bin/getslash.php"| \
awk '{ print $0 | "mail -s \x27 Slash Topics \x27 [email protected] "}'
Note the "\x27" is a quote. Maybe you only want articles dealing with "Linux":
$ ssh [email protected] "./bin/getslash.php"| \
awk '/Linux/{ print $0 | "mail -s \x27 Slash Topics \x27 [email protected] "}'
For $60, you can get a numeric display from "delcom engineering" that you can send messages and
data to. I get weather information off the internet and send it to this device.
http://sourceforge.net/projects/delcom/
(Reference TIP 151 for ssh tips)
TIP 52:
Need to Keep Secrets? Encrypt it.
To Encrypt:
$ openssl des3 -salt -in file.txt -out file.des3
The above will prompt for a password, or you can put it in
with a -k option, assuming you're on a trusted server.
To Decrypt
$ openssl des3 -d -salt -in file.des3 -out file.txt -k mypassword
Need to encrypt what you type? Enter the following, then start typing
and ^D to end.
$ openssl des3 -salt -out stuff.txt
TIP 53:
Check that a File has Not Been Tampered With: Use Cryptographic Hashing Function.
The md5sum is popular but dated
$ md5sum file
Instead, use one of the following;
$ openssl dgst -sha1 -c file
$ openssl dgst -ripemd160 -c file
All calls give a fixed length string or "message digest".
TIP 54:
Need to View Information About a Secure Web Server? A SSL/TLS test.
$ openssl s_client -connect www.sourceforge.net:443
Above will give a long listing of certificates.
Note, it is also possible to get certificate information about a mail server
$ openssl s_client -connect mail.comcast.net:995 -showcerts
When you do the above command you get two certificates. If you copy
past both certificates by taking the following contents include the
begin and end show below:
-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
....
-----END CERTIFICATE-----
Then create files "comcast0.pem" and "comcast1.pem" out of these certificaties and
put them in a directory "/home/donkey/.certs", then, with the openssl src package, in
the "./tools/c_rehash" run
$ c_rehash .certs
Doing .certs
comcast0.pem => 72f90dc0.0
comcast1.pem => f73e89fd.0
Now it's possible to have fetchmail work with these certs.
#
#
# Sample .fetchmailrc file for Comcast
#
# Check mail every 90 seconds
set daemon 90
set syslog
set postmaster donkey
#set bouncemail
#
# Comcast email is zdonkey but computer account is just donkey
#
poll mail.comcast.net with proto POP3 and options no dns
user 'zdonkey' with pass "somethin35" is 'donkey' here options ssl sslcertck sslcertpath '/home/donkey/.certs'
smtphost comcast.net
# currently not used
mda '/usr/bin/procmail -d %T'
REFERENCE: http://www.openssl.org/
http://www.catb.org/~esr/fetchmail/fetchmail-6.2.5.tar.gz
http://www.madboa.com/geek/openssl/
TIP 55:
cp --parents. What does this option do?
Assume you have the following directory structure
.
|-- a
| `-- b
| |-- c
| | `-- d
| | |-- file1
| | `-- file2
| `-- x
| `-- y
| `-- file3
`-- newdir
Issue the following command:
$ cp --parents ./a/b/c/d/* ./newdir/
Now you have the following:
.
|-- a
| `-- b
| |-- c
| | `-- d
| | |-- file1
| | `-- file2
| `-- x
| `-- y
| `-- file3
`-- newdir
`-- a
`-- b
`-- c
`-- d
|-- file1
`-- file2
Note that you can't do this with "cp -r" because you'd pickup
the x directory and its contents.
You probably want to use the "cp --parents" command for directory
surgery, which you need to be very specific on what you cut and
copy.
TIP 56:
Quickly Locating files.
The "locate" command quickly searches the indexed database for files. It just
gives the name of the files; but, if you need more information use it as follows
$ locate document|xargs ls -l
The "locate" database may only get updated every 24 hours. For more recent finds,
use the "find" command.
TIP 57:
Using the "find" Command.
List only directories, max 2 nodes down that have "net" in the name
$ find /proc -type d -maxdepth 2 -iname '*net*'
Find all *.c and *.h files starting from the current "." position.
$ find . \( -iname '*.c' -o -iname '*.h' \) -print
Find all, but skip what's in "/CVS" and "/junk". Start from "/work"
$ find /work \( -iregex '.*/CVS' -o -iregex '.*/junk' \) -prune -o -print
Note -regex and -iregex work on the directory as well, which means
you must consider the "./" that comes before all listings.
Here is another example. Find all files except what is under the CVS, including
CVS listings. Also exclude "#" and "~".
$ find . -regex '.*' ! \( -regex '.*CVS.*' -o -regex '.*[#|~].*' \)
Find a *.c file, then run grep on it looking for "stdio.h"
$ find . -iname '*.c' -exec grep -H 'stdio.h' {} \;
sample output --> ./prog1.c:#include <stdio.h>
./test.c:#include <stdio.h>
Looking for the disk-hog on the whole system?
$ find / -size +10000k 2>/dev/null
Looking for files changed in the last 24 hours? Make sure you add the
minus sign "-1", otherwise, you will only find files changed exactly
24 hours from now. With the "-1" you get files changed from now to 24
hours.
$ find . -ctime -1 -printf "%a %f\n"
Wed Oct 6 12:51:56 2004 .
Wed Oct 6 12:35:16 2004 How_to_Linux_and_Open_Source.txt
Or if you just want files.
$ find . -type f -ctime -1 -printf "%a %f\n"
Details on file status change in the last 48 hours, current directory. Also note "-atime -2").
$ find . -ctime -2 -type f -exec ls -l {} \;
NOTE: if you don't use -type f, you make get "." returned, which
when run through ls "ls ." may list more than what you want.
Also you may only want the current directory
$ find . -ctime -2 -type f -maxdepth 1 -exec ls -l {} \;
To find files modified within the last 5 to 10 minutes
$ find . -mmin +5 -mmin -10
For more example "find" commands, reference the following looking
for the latest version of "bashscripts.x.x.x.tar.gz":
http://sourceforge.net/project/showfiles.php?group_id=79320&package_id=80711
See "TIP 71" for examples of find using the inode feature. " $ find . -inum <inode> -exec rm -- '{}' \; "
If you don't want error messages, or need to redirect error messages "> /dev/null 2>&1", or see
"TIP 81".
TIP 58:
Using the "rm" command.
How do you remove a file that has the name "-". For instance, if you run the command
"$ cat > - " and type some text followed by ^d, how does the "-" file get deleted?
$ rm -- -
The "--" nullifies any rm options.
How do you delete the directory "one", all it's sub-directories, and any data?
$ rm -rf ./one
Note, to selectively delete stuff on a directory, use the find command "TIP 57".
To delete by inode, see "TIP 71".
TIP 59:
Giving ownership.
How do you give the user "donkey" ownership to all directories and files under
"./fordonkey" ?
$ chown -R donkey ./fordonkey
TIP 60:
Only Permit root login -- give others a message when they try to login.
Create the file "/etc/nologin" with "nologin" containing the contents
of the message.
TIP 61:
Limits: file size, open files, pipe size, stack size, max memory size
cpu time, plus others.
To get a listing of current limits:
$ ulimit -a
core file size (blocks, -c) 0
data seg size (kbytes, -d) unlimited
file size (blocks, -f) unlimited
max locked memory (kbytes, -l) unlimited
max memory size (kbytes, -m) unlimited
open files (-n) 1024
pipe size (512 bytes, -p) 8
stack size (kbytes, -s) 8192
cpu time (seconds, -t) unlimited
max user processes (-u) 8179
virtual memory (kbytes, -v) unlimited
Note as a user you can decrease your limits in the current
shell session; but, you cannot increase. This can be ideal
for testing programs. But, first you may want to create
another shell "sh" so that you can "go back to where started".
$ ulimit -f 10
Now try
$ yes >> out
File size limit exceeded
To set limits on users, make changes to "/etc/security/limits.conf"
bozo - maxlogins 1
Will keep bozo from loging in more than once.
To list hard limits:
$ ulimit -Ha
To list soft limits:
$ ulimit -Sa
To restrict user access by time, day make changes to
"/etc/security/time.conf"
Also take a look at "/etc/profile" to see what other changes
can be made, plus take a look under "/etc/security/*.conf" for
other configuration files.
TIP 62:
Stupid "cat" Tricks.
Also see (TIP 43 and TIP 235).
If you have multiple blank lines that you want to squeeze down to
one line, then, try the following:
$ cat -s <file>
Want to number the lines?
$ cat -n <file>
Want to show tabs?
$ cat -t <file>
Need to mark end of lines by "$"? The following was suggested by (Amos Shapira)
$ cat -e <file>
Want to see all the ctl characters?
/* ctlgen.c
Program to generate ctl characters.
Compile:
gcc -o ctlgen ctlgen.c
Run:
./ctlgen > mout
Now see the characters:
cat -v mout
Here's a sample output:
$ cat -v mout|tail
test M-v
test M-w
test M-x
test M-y
test M-z
test M-{
test M-|
test M-}
test M-~
test M-^?
*/
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
for(i=0; i < 256; ++i)
printf("test %c \n",i);
return 0;
}
TIP 63:
Guard against SYN attacks and "ping".
As root do the following:
echo 1 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/tcp_syncookies
Want to disable "ping" ?
echo 1 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/icmp_echo_ignore_all
Disable broadcast/multicast "ping" ?
echo 1 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/icmp_echo_ignore_broadcasts
And to enable again:
echo 0 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/icmp_echo_ignore_all
TIP 64:
Make changes to .bash_profile and need to update the current session?
$ source .bash_profile
With the above command, the user does not have to logout.
TIP 65:
What are the Special Shell Variables?
$# The number of arguments.
$@ All arguments, as separate words.
$* All arguments, as one word.
$$ ID of the current process.
$? Exit status of the last command.
$0,$1,..$9,${10},${11}...${N} Positional parameters. After "9" you must use the ${k} syntax.
Note that 0 is true. For example if you execute the following, which is true you get zero.
$ [[ -f /etc/passwd ]]
$ echo $?
0
And the following is false, which returns a 1.
$ [[ -f /etc/passwdjabberwisnohere ]]
$ echo $?
1
So true=0 and false=1.
Sample program "mdo" to show the difference between "$@" and "$*"
#!/bin/bash
function myarg
{
echo "$# in myarg function"
}
echo -e "$# parameters on the cmd line\n"
echo -e "calling: myarg \"\$@\" and myarg \"\$*\"\n"
myarg "$@"
myarg "$*"
echo -e "\ncalling: myarg \$@ and myarg \$* without quotes\n"
myarg $@
myarg $*
The result of running "./mdo one two". Note that when quoted, myarg "$*",
returns 1 ... all parameters are smushed together as one word.
[chirico@third-fl-71 theBook]$ ./mdo one two
2 parameters on the cmd line
calling: myarg "$@" and myarg "$*"
2 in myarg function
1 in myarg function
calling: myarg $@ and myarg $* without quotes
2 in myarg function
2 in myarg function
Example program "mdo2" shows how the input separator can be changed.
#!/bin/bash
IFS=|
echo -e "$*\n"
IFS=,
echo -e "$*\n"
IFS=\;
echo -e "$*\n"
IFS=$1
echo -e "$*\n"
[chirico@third-fl-71 theBook]$ ./mdo2 one two three four five
one two three four five
one,two,three,four,five
one;two;three;four;five
oneotwoothreeofourofive
TIP 66:
Replace all "x" with "y" and all "y" with "x" in file data.
$ cata data
x y
y x
$ tr "xy" "yx" < data
y x
x y
TIP 67:
On a Linux 2.6.x Kernel, how do you directly measure disk activity,
and where is this information documented?
o The information is documented in the kernel source
./Documentation/iostats.txt
o The new way of getting this info in 2.6.x is
$ cat /sys/block/hda/stat
151121 5694 1932358 796675 37867 76770 916994 8353762 0 800672 9150437
Field 1 -- # of reads issued
This is the total number of reads completed successfully.
Field 2 -- # of reads merged, field 6 -- # of writes merged
Reads and writes which are adjacent to each other may be merged for
efficiency. Thus two 4K reads may become one 8K read before it is
ultimately handed to the disk, and so it will be counted (and queued)
as only one I/O. This field lets you know how often this was done.
Field 3 -- # of sectors read
This is the total number of sectors read successfully.
Field 4 -- # of milliseconds spent reading
This is the total number of milliseconds spent by all reads (as
measured from __make_request() to end_that_request_last()).
Field 5 -- # of writes completed
This is the total number of writes completed successfully.
Field 7 -- # of sectors written
This is the total number of sectors written successfully.
Field 8 -- # of milliseconds spent writing
This is the total number of milliseconds spent by all writes (as
measured from __make_request() to end_that_request_last()).
Field 9 -- # of I/Os currently in progress
The only field that should go to zero. Incremented as requests are
given to appropriate request_queue_t and decremented as they finish.
Field 10 -- # of milliseconds spent doing I/Os
This field is increases so long as field 9 is nonzero.
Field 11 -- weighted # of milliseconds spent doing I/Os
This field is incremented at each I/O start, I/O completion, I/O
merge, or read of these stats by the number of I/Os in progress
(field 9) times the number of milliseconds spent doing I/O since the
last update of this field. This can provide an easy measure of both
I/O completion time and the backlog that may be accumulating.
Note, this is device specific.
TIP 68:
Passing Outbound Mail, plus Masquerading User and Hostname.
Here's a specific example:
How does one send and receive Comcast email from a home Linux box,
which uses Comcast as the ISP, if the local account on the Linux
box is different from the Comcast email. For instance, the
account on the Linux box is "chirico@third-fl-71" and the Comcast
email account is "[email protected]". Note both the hostname and
username are different.
So, the user "chirico" using "mutt", "elm" or any email program would
like to send out email to say "[email protected]"; yet, donkey would
see the email from "[email protected]" and not "chirico@third-fl-71"
but chirico@third-fl-71 would get the replies.
For a full description of how to solve this problem, including related
"sendmail.mc", "site.config.m4", "genericstable", "genericsdomain",
".procmailrc", and ".forward" files, reference the following:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/README_COMCAST_EMAIL.txt?download
Included in the above link are instructions for building sendmail with
"SASL" and "STARTTLS".
TIP 69:
How do you remove just the last 2 lines from a file and save the result?
$ sed '$d' file | sed '$d' > savefile
Or, as Amos Shapira pointed out, it's much easier with the head command.
$ head -2 file
And, of course, removing just the last line
$ sed '$d' file > savefile
(See REFERENCES (13))
How do you remove extra spaces at the end of a line?
$ sed 's/[ ]*$//g'
How do you remove blank lines, or lines with just spaces and tabs,
saving the origional file as file.backup?
$ perl -pi.backup -e "s/^(\s)*\n//" file
Or, you may want to remove empty spaces and tabs at the end of a line
$ perl -pi.backup -e "s/(\s)*\n/\n/" file
Or, you may want to converts dates of the format 01/23/2007 to the
format 2007-01-23. This is MySQL's common date format.
$ perl -pi.backup -e "s|(\d+)/(\d+)/(\d+)|\$3-\$2-\$1|" file
Note, you need a backslash \$3,\$2,\$1 so as to not get bash shell
substitution.
TIP 70:
Generating Random Numbers.
$ od -vAn -N4 -tu4 < /dev/urandom
3905158199
TIP 71:
Deleting a File by it's Inode Value.
See (PROGRAMMING TIP 5) for creating the file, or
$ cat > '\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'
type some text
^D
To list the inode and display the characters.
$ ls -libt *
To remove by inode. Note the "--" option. This
will keep any special characters in the file from being
interpreted at "rm" options.
$ find . -inum <inode> -exec rm -- '{}' \;
Or to check contents
$ find . -inum <inode> -exec cat '{}' \;
Reference:
http://www.faqs.org/ftp/usenet/news.answers/unix-faq/faq/part2
TIP 72:
Sending Attachments Using Mutt -- On the Command Line.
$ mutt -s "See Attachment" -a file.doc [email protected] < message.txt
or just the message:
$ echo | mutt -a sample.tar.gz [email protected]
Reference:
http://www.shelldorado.com/articles/mailattachments.html
Also see (TIP 51).
TIP 73:
Want to find out what functions a program calls?
$ strace <program>
Try this with "topen.c" (see PROGRAMMING TIP 5)
$ strace ./topen
TIP 74:
RPM Usage Summary.
Install. Full filename is needed.
$ rpm -ivh Fedora/RPMS/postgresql-libs-7.4.2-1.i386.rpm
To view list of files installed with a particular package.
$ rpm -ql postgresql-libs
/usr/lib/libecpg.so.4
/usr/lib/libecpg.so.4.1
/usr/lib/libecpg_compat.so.1
/usr/lib/libecpg_compat.so.1.1
/usr/lib/libpgtypes.so.1
...
Or, to get the file listing from a package that is not installed use the
"-p" option.
$ rpm -pql /iso0/Fedora/RPMS/libpcap-0.8.3-7.i386.rpm
/usr/share/doc/libpcap-0.8.3/CHANGES
/usr/share/doc/libpcap-0.8.3/LICENSE
/usr/share/doc/libpcap-0.8.3/README
/usr/share/man/man3/pcap.3.gz
Note, you can also get specific listing. For example, suppose you
want to view the changelog
$ rpm -q --changelog audit
* Tue Jan 13 2009 Steve Grubb <[email protected]> 1.7.11-2
- Add crypto event definitions
* Sat Jan 10 2009 Steve Grubb <[email protected]> 1.7.11-1
- New upstream release
Or, maybe you want to see what scripts are installed.
$ rpm -q --scripts audit
postinstall scriptlet (using /bin/sh):
/sbin/chkconfig --add auditd
preuninstall scriptlet (using /bin/sh):
if [ $1 -eq 0 ]; then
/sbin/service auditd stop > /dev/null 2>&1
/sbin/chkconfig --del auditd
fi
postuninstall scriptlet (using /bin/sh):
if [ $1 -ge 1 ]; then
/sbin/service auditd condrestart > /dev/null 2>&1 || :
fi
For dependencies listing, use the "R" option.
$ rpm -qpR /iso0/Fedora/RPMS/libpcap-0.8.3-7.i386.rpm
/sbin/ldconfig
/sbin/ldconfig
kernel >= 2.2.0
libc.so.6
libc.so.6(GLIBC_2.0)
libc.so.6(GLIBC_2.1)
libc.so.6(GLIBC_2.1.3)
libc.so.6(GLIBC_2.3)
openssl
rpmlib(CompressedFileNames) <= 3.0.4-1
rpmlib(PayloadFilesHavePrefix) <= 4.0-1
To check the integrity, use the "-K" option.
$ rpm -K /iso0/Fedora/RPMS/libpcap-0.8.3-7.i386.rpm
/iso0/Fedora/RPMS/libpcap-0.8.3-7.i386.rpm: (sha1) dsa sha1 md5 gpg OK
To list all packages installed.
$ rpm -qa
To find out which file a package belongs to.
$ rpm -qf /usr/lib/libecpg.so.4.1
To find the source. (See Tip 246 for more detail)
$ rpm -qi sysstat
To uninstall a package
$ rpm -e
For building rpm packages reference the following:
http://www-106.ibm.com/developerworks/library/l-rpm1/
To verify md5 sum so that you know it downloaded ok
$ rpm -K *.rpm
The following is a good reference:
http://www.redhat.com/docs/books/max-rpm/max-rpm.pdf
http://www.rpm.org/max-rpm/s1-rpm-install-additional-options.html
TIP 75:
Listing Output from a Bash Script.
Add "set -x"
#!/bin/bash
set -x
ls
date
Will list the files and output as follows:
+ ls
ChangeLog CVS data test
+ date
Thu Jul 1 20:41:04 EDT 2004
TIP 76:
Using wget.
Grap a webpage and pipe it to less. For example suppose you wanted to pipe the
contents of all these tips, directly from the web.
$ wget -O - http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/How_to_Linux_and_Open_Source.txt?download|less
TIP 77:
Finding IP address and MAC address.
$ /sbin/ifconfig
Note the following output "eth0" and "eth0:1" which means
two IP addresses are tied to 1 NIC (Network Interface Card).
eth0 Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:50:DA:60:5B:AD
inet addr:192.168.1.155 Bcast:192.168.99.255 Mask:255.255.252.0
UP BROADCAST RUNNING MULTICAST MTU:1500 Metric:1
RX packets:982757 errors:116 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:116
TX packets:439297 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:1000
RX bytes:693529078 (661.4 Mb) TX bytes:78400296 (74.7 Mb)
Interrupt:10 Base address:0xa800
eth0:1 Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:50:DA:60:5B:AD
inet addr:192.168.1.182 Bcast:192.168.3.255 Mask:255.255.252.0
UP BROADCAST RUNNING MULTICAST MTU:1500 Metric:1
RX packets:982757 errors:116 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:116
TX packets:439299 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:1000
RX bytes:693529078 (661.4 Mb) TX bytes:78400636 (74.7 Mb)
Interrupt:10 Base address:0xa800
lo Link encap:Local Loopback
inet addr:127.0.0.1 Mask:255.0.0.0
UP LOOPBACK RUNNING MTU:16436 Metric:1
RX packets:785 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0
TX packets:785 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:0
RX bytes:2372833 (2.2 Mb) TX bytes:2372833 (2.2 Mb)
TIP 78:
DOS to UNIX and UNIX to DOS.
$ dos2unix file.txt
And to go the other way from UNIX to DOS
$ unix2dos unixfile
See the man page, since there are MAC options.
NOTE: If you're working file DOS files, you'll probably want to use
"zip" instead of "gzip" so users on Windows can unzip them.
$ zip test.zip test.txt
TIP 79:
Need to Run Interactive Commands? Try "expect".
http://expect.nist.gov/expect.tar.gz
This simple example waits for the input "hi", in some form before
returning, immediately, "hello there!". Otherwise, it will wait for
60 seconds, then, return "hello there!".
#!/usr/bin/expect
set timeout 60
expect "hi\n"
send "hello there!\n"
Reference:
http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/expect/chapter/ch03.html
http://www.cotse.com/dlf/man/expect/bulletproof1.htm
TIP 80:
Using PHP as a Command Line Scripting Language.
The following will grab the complete file from slashdot.
#!/usr/bin/php -q
<?php
$fileName = "http://slashdot.org/slashdot.xml";
$rss = file($fileName) or die ("Cannot open file $fileName\n");
for ($index=0; $index < count($rss); $index++)
{
echo $rss[$index];
}
?>
Note, if you want an example that parses the XML of
slashdot, then, download the following:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/php_scripts.tar.gz?download
TIP 81:
Discarding all output -- including stderr messages.
$ ls > /dev/null 2>&1
Or sending all output to a file
$ someprog > /tmp/file 2>&1
Sometimes, find displays a lot of errors when searching through
directories that the user doesn't have access to. To discard
error messages "stderr", which is normally file descripter "2"
work the following:
$ find / -iname 'stuff' 2>/dev/null
or to pipe results elsewhere
$ find / -iname 'stuff' > /tmp/results_of_find 2>/dev/null
Also see (TIP 118).
TIP 82:
Using MIX. D. Knuth's assembly language/machine-code instruction set used in
his books to illustrate his algorithms.
Download the source:
http://sourceforge.net/project/showfiles.php?group_id=13897
$ ./configure
$ make
$ make install
Documentation can be found at the following link. The link on
sourceforge is not correct, but, the one below works.
http://www.gnu.org/software/mdk/manual/
TIP 83:
Gnuplot [ http://sourceforge.net/projects/gnuplot/ ].
This software is ideal for printing graphs.
gnuplot> set term png
gnuplot> set output 'testcos.png'
gnuplot> plot cos(x)*sin(x)
gnuplot> exit
Or the following command can be put into "file"
$ cat > file
set term png
set output 'testcos.png'
plot cos(x)*sin(x)
exit
^D
Then, run as follows:
$ gnuplot file
Or, suppose you have the following file "/home/chirico/data". Comments
with "#" are not read by gnuplot.
# File /home/chirico/data
#
2005-07-26 1 2.3 3
2005-07-27 2 3.4 5
2005-07-28 3 4 6.6
2005-07-29 4 6 2.5
And you have the following new "file"
set term png
set xdata time
set timefmt "%Y-%m-%d "
set format x "%Y/%m/%d"
set output '/var/www/html/chirico/gnuplot/data.png'
plot '/home/chirico/data' using 1:2 w linespoints title '1st col', \
'/home/chirico/data' using 1:3 w linespoints title '2nd col', \
'/home/chirico/data' using 1:4 w linespoints title '3rd col'
exit
You can now get a graph of this data running the following:
$ gnuplot file
TIP 84:
CPU Information - speed, processor, cache.
$ cat /proc/cpuinfo
processor : 0
vendor_id : GenuineIntel
cpu family : 15
model : 2
model name : Intel(R) Pentium(R) 4 CPU 2.20GHz
stepping : 9
cpu MHz : 2193.221
cache size : 512 KB
fdiv_bug : no
hlt_bug : no
f00f_bug : no
coma_bug : no
fpu : yes
fpu_exception : yes
cpuid level : 2
wp : yes
flags : fpu vme de pse tsc msr pae mce cx8 apic sep mtrr
bogomips : 4325.37
"bogomips" is a rough but good way to quickly compare two computer speeds. True it's a
bogus reading; but, a "good enough" for government work calculation. See (TIP 10) for
"vmstat" and "iostat".
TIP 85:
POVRAY - Making Animated GIFs
To see this in action, reference:
http://souptonuts.sourceforge.net/povray/orbit.pov.html
These are the basic command to create:
$ povray orbit.ini -Iorbit.pov
$ convert -delay 20 *.ppm orbit.gif
By the way, convert is a program from imagemagick, and it can
be downloaded from ( http://www.imagemagick.org ).
The following is "orbit.pov"
#include "colors.inc"
#include "finish.inc"
#include "metals.inc"
#include "textures.inc"
#include "stones.inc"
#include "skies.inc"
camera {
location < 2, 3, -8 >
look_at < 0, 0, 0 >
focal_point <0, 0, 0>
blur_samples 20
}
light_source {
< 0, 10, 0>
color White
area_light <2,0,0>,<0,0,2>, 2, 2
adaptive 1
fade_distance 8
fade_power 1
}
sky_sphere {
S_Cloud3
}
plane { <0, 1, 0>, -1
texture {
pigment {
checker color Blue, color White
}
finish {Phong_Glossy}
}
}
#declare ball0=
sphere {
<0.5, 0.5, 0>, 1
texture {
T_Silver_1E
pigment {Yellow}
}
}
#declare ball1=
sphere {
<3, 2, 0>, 0.5
texture {
T_Silver_1E
pigment {Blue}
}
}
#declare ball2=
sphere {
<3, 1, 0>, 1
texture {
T_Silver_1E
pigment {Green}
}
}
object {ball0 rotate 360*clock*y}
object {ball1 rotate 720*clock*y}
object {ball2 rotate 360*(1 - clock)*y}
And, "orbit.ini" follows:
Output_File_Type=P
Width=320
Height=240
Initial_Frame=1
Final_Frame=10
Antialias=true
Subset_Start_Frame=1
Subset_End_Frame=10
Cyclic_Animation=on
TIP 86:
GPG -- GnuPG
Reference: http://www.gnupg.org/documentation/faqs.html
http://codesorcery.net/mutt/mutt-gnupg-howto
http://www.gnupg.org/(en)/download/index.html
(SCRIPT 4) on following link:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/README_common_script_commands.html?download
Generage key:
$ gpg --gen-key
Generate public key ID and fingerprint
$ gpg --fingerprint
Get a list of keys:
$ gpg --list-keys
pub 1024D/A11C1499 2004-07-15 Mike Chirico <[email protected]>
sub 1024g/E1A3C2B3 2004-07-15
Encrypt
$ gpg -r Mike --encrypt sample.txt
This will produce "sample.txt.asc", which is a binary file. Note, I can use "Mike" because that's the
name on the list of keys. Again, it will be a binary file.
Encrypt using "ASCII-armored text" (--armor), which is probably what you want when sending "in" the body of an
email, or some document.
$ gpg -r Mike --encrypt --armor sample.txt
or
$ gpg -r Mike -e -a sample.txt
or
$ gpg --output somefile.asc --armor -r Mike --encrypt --armor sample.txt
The above 3 statements will still produce "sample.txt.asc", but look at it, or "$ cat sample.txt.asc" without
fear, since there are no binary characters. Yes, you could even compile a program "$ g++ -o test test.c" , then,
"$ gpg --output test.asc -r Mike --encrypt --armor test". However, when decrypting make sure to pipe
the results.
$ gpg --decrypt test.asc > test
Export "public" key:
$ gpg --armor --export Mike > m1.asc
Signing the file "message.txt":
$ gpg --clearsign message.txt
Sending the key to the "key-server"
First, list the keys.
$ gpg --list-keys
/home/chirico/.gnupg/pubring.gpg
v------------------ Use this with "0x" in front -------
pub 1024D/A11C1499 2004-07-15 Mike Chirico <[email protected]> |
sub 1024g/E1A3C2B3 2004-07-15 |
|
v----------------------------------------------------
$ gpg --send-keys 0xA11C1499
The above sends it to the keyserver defined in "/home/chirico/.gnupg/gpg.conf". Other key servers:
wwwkeys.pgp.net
search.keyserver.net
pgp.ai.mit.edu
When you go to your user-group meetings, you need to bring 2 forms of ID, and
list your Key fingerprint. Shown below is the command for getting this fingerprint.
$ gpg --fingerprint [email protected]
pub 1024D/A11C1499 2004-07-15
Key fingerprint = 9D7F C80D BB7B 4BAB CCA4 1BE9 9056 5BEC A11C 1499
uid Mike Chirico (http://souptonuts.sourceforge.net/chirico/index.php) <[email protected]>
sub 1024g/E1A3C2B3 2004-07-15
Receving keys:
The following will retrieve my [email protected] key
$ gpg --recv-keys 0xA11C1499
Special Note: If you get the following error "GPG: Warning: Using Insecure Memory" , then,
" chmod 4755 /path/to/gpg" to setuid(root) permissioins on the gpg binary.
NOTE: If using mutt, just before sending with the "y" option, hit "p" to sign or encrypt.
It's possible to create a gpg/pgp email from the command line. For a tutorial on this,
reference (SCRIPT 4) at the following link:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/README_common_script_commands.html?download
TIP 87:
Working with Dates: Steffen Beyer has developed a Perl and C module for working with dates
This softare can be downloaded from the following location:
http://www.engelschall.com/u/sb/download/pkg/Date-Calc-5.3.tar.gz
$ wget http://www.engelschall.com/u/sb/download/pkg/Date-Calc-5.3.tar.gz
$ tar -xzvf Date-Calc-5.3.tar.gz
$ cd Date-Calc-5.3
$ cp ./examples/cal.c .
$ gcc cal.c DateCalc.c -o mcal
The file cal.c contains sample function calls from DateCalc.c. Note, "DateCalc.c"
is just a list of functions and includes for "DateCalc.h" and "ToolBox.h".
Or, and this may be easier, just download the following:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/cpearls/date_calc.tar.gz?download
The above link contains a few examples.
TIP 88:
Color patterns for mutt.
The colors can be changed in the /home/user/.muttrc file. The first field begins with
color, the second field is the foreground color, and the third field is the background
color, or default.
An example .muttrc for colors:
# color patterns for mutt
color normal white black # normal text
color indicator black yellow # actual message
color tree brightmagenta default # thread arrows
color status brightyellow default # status line
color error brightred default # errors
color message magenta default # info messages
color signature magenta default # signature
color attachment brightyellow red # MIME attachments
color search brightyellow red # search matches
color tilde brightmagenta default # ~ at bottom of msg
color markers red default # + at beginning of wrapped lines
color hdrdefault cyan default # default header lines
color bold red default # hiliting bold patterns in body
color underline green default # hiliting underlined patterns in body
color quoted cyan default # quoted text
color quoted1 magenta default
color quoted2 red default
color quoted3 green default
color quoted4 magenta default
color quoted5 cyan default
color quoted6 magenta default
color quoted7 red default
color quoted8 green default
color quoted9 cyan default
color body cyan default "((ftp|http|https)://|news:)[^ >)\"\t]+"
color body cyan default "[-a-z_0-9.+]+@[-a-z_0-9.]+"
color body red default "(^| )\\*[-a-z0-9*]+\\*[,.?]?[ \n]"
color body green default "(^| )_[-a-z0-9_]+_[,.?]?[\n]"
color body red default "(^| )\\*[-a-z0-9*]+\\*[,.?]?[ \n]"
color body green default "(^| )_[-a-z0-9_]+_[,.?]?[ \n]"
color index cyan default ~F # Flagged
color index red default ~N # New
color index magenta default ~T # Tagged
color index cyan default ~D # Deleted
Also see (TIP 190)
TIP 89:
ps command in detail
Here are the possible codes when using state "$ ps -e -o state,cmd"
PROCESS STATE CODES
D uninterruptible sleep (usually IO)
R runnable (on run queue)
S sleeping
T traced or stopped
Z a defunct ("zombie") process
< high-priority (not nice to other users)
N low-priority (nice to other users)
L has pages locked into memory (for real-time and custom IO)
s is a session leader
l is multi-threaded (using CLONE_THREAD, like NPTL pthreads do)
+ is in the foreground process group
For instance:
Note that the -o is for user defined, and -e is for select
all process.
$ ps -e -o pid,state,start,time,etime,cmd
...
9946 S 15:40:45 00:00:00 02:23:29 /bin/bash -i
9985 T 15:41:24 00:00:01 02:22:50 emacs mout2
10003 T 15:43:59 00:00:00 02:20:15 emacs NOTES
10320 T 17:38:42 00:00:00 25:32 emacs stuff.c
...
You may want to command below, without the -e, which will give the
process only under the current terminal.
$ ps -o pid,state,start,time,etime,cmd
Want to find what 's impacting your load?
$ ps -e -o %cpu,pid,state,start,time,etime,%cpu,%mem,cmd|sort -rn|less
$ ps aux
USER PID %CPU %MEM VSZ RSS TTY STAT START TIME COMMAND
root 1 0.0 0.0 1380 480 ? S Aug04 0:00 init [3]
root 2 0.0 0.0 0 0 ? SWN Aug04 0:00 [ksoftirqd/0]
root 3 0.0 0.0 0 0 ? SW< Aug04 0:00 [events/0]
root 4 0.0 0.0 0 0 ? SW< Aug04 0:00 [khelper]
...
Or, if you want to see the environment add the -e option
$ ps aeux
...
chirico 2735 0.0 0.1 4400 1492 pts/0 S Aug04 0:00 -bash USER=chirico LOGNAME=chirico HOME=/home/chirico PATH=/usr/
chirico 2771 0.0 0.0 4328 924 pts/0 S Aug04 0:00 screen -e^Pa -D -R HOSTNAME=third-fl-71.localdomain TERM=xterm S
chirico 2772 0.0 0.6 9476 6352 ? S Aug04 0:54 SCREEN -e^Pa -D -R HOSTNAME=third-fl-71.localdomain TERM=xterm S
chirico 2773 0.0 0.1 4432 1548 pts/1 S Aug04 0:10 /bin/bash STY=2772.pts-0.third-fl-71 TERM=screen TERMCAP=SC|scre
chirico 2797 0.0 0.1 4416 1496 pts/2 S Aug04 0:00 /bin/bash STY=2772.pts-0.third-fl-71 TERM=screen TERMCAP=SC|scre
root 2821 0.0 0.0 4100 952 pts/2 S Aug04 0:00 su -
root 2822 0.0 0.1 4384 1480 pts/2 S Aug04 0:00 -bash
chirico 2862 0.0 0.1 4428 1524 pts/3 S Aug04 0:00 /bin/bash STY=2772.pts-0.third-fl-71 TERM=screen TERMCAP=SC|scre
sporkey 2946 0.0 0.2 6836 2960 ? S Aug04 0:15 fetchmail
chirico 2952 0.0 0.1 4436 1552 pts/5 S Aug04 0:00 /bin/bash STY=2772.pts-0.third-fl-71 TERM=screen TERMCAP=SC|scre
chirico 3880 0.0 0.1 4416 1496 pts/6 S Aug05 0:00 /bin/bash STY=2772.pts-0.third-fl-71 TERM=screen TERMCAP=SC|scre
root 3904 0.0 0.0 4100 956 pts/6 S Aug05 0:00 su - donkey
donkey 3905 0.0 0.1 4336 1452 pts/6 S Aug05 0:00 -bash
donkey 3938 0.0 0.2 6732 2856 ? S Aug05 0:14 fetchmail
chirico 3944 0.0 0.1 4416 1496 pts/7 S Aug05 0:00 /bin/bash STY=2772.pts-0.third-fl-71 TERM=screen TERMCAP=SC|scre
...
There is also a -f "forrest" option. Also note below " -bash" is the start of a login shell.
$ ps aeuxwwf
The ww option above gives a wide format with all variables. Use the above command if you plan
to parse through a Perl script. Otherwise, it may be easier to do a quick read using the command
below, without "ww".
$ ps aeuxf
...
root 2339 0.0 0.1 3512 1444 ? S Dec01 0:00 /usr/sbin/sshd
root 25651 0.0 0.1 6764 1980 ? S Dec23 0:00 \_ /usr/sbin/sshd
chirico 25653 0.0 0.2 6840 2236 ? S Dec23 0:14 \_ /usr/sbin/sshd
chirico 25654 0.0 0.1 4364 1440 pts/4 S Dec23 0:00 \_ -bash USER=chirico LOGNAME=chirico HOME=/home/chirico
chirico 25690 0.0 0.0 4328 920 pts/4 S Dec23 0:00 \_ screen -e^Pa -D -R HOSTNAME=third-fl-71.localdomain TERM=xterm
root 2355 0.0 0.0 2068 904 ? S Dec01 0:00 xinetd -stayalive -pidfile /var/run/xinetd.pid
...
It is also possible to list the process by command line. For example, the following command will only list the emacs
processes.
$ ps -fC emacs
UID PID PPID C STIME TTY TIME CMD
chirico 5049 5020 0 May11 pts/13 00:00:00 emacs -nw Notes
chirico 12368 5104 0 May12 pts/18 00:00:00 emacs -nw dnotify.c
chirico 19792 18028 0 May13 pts/20 00:00:00 emacs -nw hello.c
chirico 14034 27367 0 18:52 pts/8 00:00:00 emacs -nw How_to_Linux_and_Open_Source.txt
You may also want to consider using top in batch mode. Here the "-n 1" means refresh once,
and the "b" is for batch. The "fmt -s" is to put it in a more readable format.
$ top -n 1 b |fmt -s >>statfile
TIP 90:
Learning Assembly.
Once you have written the source, assuming the file is "exit.s", it can be compiled as follows:
$ as exit.s -o exit.o
$ ld exit.o -o exit
Here is the program:
#
#INPUT: none
#
#OUTPUT: returns a status code. This can be viewed
# by typing
#
# echo $?
#
# after running the program
#
#VARIABLES:
# %eax holds the system call number
# (this is always the case)
#
# %ebx holds the return status
#
.section .data
.section .text
.globl _start
_start:
movl $1, %eax # this is the linux kernel command
# number (system call) for exiting
# a program
movl $0, %ebx # this is the status number we will
# return to the operating system.
# Change this around and it will
# return different things to
# echo $?
int $0x80 # this wakes up the kernel to run
# the exit command
After running this program, you can get the exit code.
$ echo $?
0
That is about all it does; but, get the book for more details. The
book is free.
http://savannah.nongnu.org/download/pgubook/
TIP 91:
Creating a sandbox for reiserfstune,debugreiserfs and ACL. Also see TIP 4.
Assume you have a reisers files system created from a disk file, which
means you have done something like the following:
# dd if=/dev/zero of=disk-rfs count=102400
# losetup /dev/loop4 ./disk-rfs
# mkfs -t reiserfs /dev/loop4
# mkdir /fs2
# mount -o loop,acl ./disk-rfs /fs2
Now, you can run reiserfstune. But, first you will need to umount fs2
# umount /fs2
# reiserfstune ./disk-rfs
Or you can run the debug command
# debugreiserfs -J ./disk-rfs
Now, suppose you run through a lot of the debug options on
http://www.namesys.com/ and you destroy this file.
You can recreate the file and delete the loop device.
# dd if=/dev/zero of=disk-rfs count=102400
# losetup -d /dev/loop4
# mount -o loop,acl ./disk-rfs /fs2
Now, try working with some of the ACL options - you can only do this
with the latest kernel and tools -- Fedora Core 2 will work.
Assume you have 3 users, donkey, chirico and bozo2. You can give
everyone rights to this file system as follows:
# setfacl -R -m d:u:donkey:rwx,d:u:chirico:rwx,d:u:bozo2:rwx /fs2
TIP 92:
SpamAssassin - Setup.
Step 1.
Installing the SpamAssassin CPAN utility. You will need to do this
as root.
$ su -
Once you have root privileges invoke cpan.
# perl -MCPAN -e shell
cpan>
Now install with prerequisites policy set to ask.
cpan> o conf prerequisites_policy ask
cpan> install Mail::SpamAssassin
You will get lots of output as the necessary modules are downloaded and
compiled and installed.
Step 2.
Configuration.
Edit the following "/etc/mail/spamassassin/local.cf"
Here is a look at my file
$ cat /etc/mail/spamassassin/local.cf
# This is the right place to customize your installation of SpamAssassin.
#
# See 'perldoc Mail::SpamAssassin::Conf' for details of what can be
# tweaked.
#
###########################################################################
#
# rewrite_subject 0
# report_safe 1
# trusted_networks 212.17.35.
#
# Below added from book
# You may want to set this to 5, then, work your way down.
# Currently I have this 3
required_hits 3
# This determines how spam is reported. Currently safe email is reported
# in the message.
report_safe 1
# The will rewrite the tag of the spam message.
rewrite_subject 1
# By default, SpamAssassin will run RBL checks. If your ISP already
# does this, set this to 1.
skip_rbl_checks 0
Step 3.
Update .procmail.
You should update the .procmail file as follows. Here is my /home/chirico/.procmail file.
$ cat /home/chirico/.procmailrc
PATH=/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/local/bin
MAILDIR=/var/spool/mail
DEFAULT=/var/spool/mail/chirico
LOGFILE=/home/chirico/MailBAG
MYHOME=/home/chirico
# Must have folder MailTRASH
TRASH=/home/chirico/MailTRASH
# Will get everything from this mail
:0
* ^From:.*[email protected]
$DEFAULT
# Spamassassin
:0fw
* <300000
|/usr/local/bin/spamassassin
Reference:
http://pm-doc.sourceforge.net/
TIP 93:
Make Graphs: using dot and neato.
$ dot -Tpng dotfile -o myout.png
To see the output reference the following:
http://souptonuts.sourceforge.net/code/myout.png
Where "dotfile" is the following:
$ cat dotfile
digraph g
{
node [shape = record];
node0 [ label ="<f0> stuff | <f1> J | <f2> "];
node1 [ label ="<f0> | <f1> E | <f2> "];
node4 [ label ="<f0> | <f1> C | <f2> "];
node6 [ label ="<f0> | <f1> I | <f2> "];
node2 [ label ="<f0> | <f1> U | <f2> "];
node5 [ label ="<f0> | <f1> N | <f2> "];
node9 [ label ="<f0> | <f1> Y | <f2> "];
node8 [ label ="<f0> | <f1> W | <f2> "];
node10 [ label ="<f0> | <f1> Z | <f2> "];
node7 [ label ="<f0> | <f1> A | <f2> "];
node3 [ label ="<f0> | <f1> G | <f2> "];
"node0":f0 -> "node1":f1;
"node0":f2 -> "node2":f1;
"node1":f0 -> "node4":f1;
"node1":f2 -> "node6":f1;
"node4":f0 -> "node7":f1;
"node4":f2 -> "node3":f1;
"node2":f0 -> "node5":f1;
"node2":f2 -> "node9":f1;
"node9":f0 -> "node8":f1;
"node9":f2 -> "node10":f1;
}
Checkout the following article:
http://www.linuxjournal.com/article.php?sid=7275
To download this software
http://www.graphviz.org/
TIP 94:
Makefile: working with conditions
First note that all the indentations of the file must be
a single tab. There cannot be any spaces, or make will
not run.
$ cat Makefile
# Compiler flags
sqliteLIB := $(shell ls /usr/local/lib/libsqlite.so)
sqlite3LIB := $(shell ls /usr/local/lib/libsqlite3.so)
# all assumes sqlite and sqlite3 are installed
#
test:
ifeq ("$(sqlite3LIB)","/usr/local/lib/libsqlite3.so")
@echo -e "True -- we found the file"
else
@echo "False -- we did not find the file"
endif
So, if I run make I will get the following output.
$ make
True -- we found the file
This is because I have a file /usr/local/lib/libsqlite3.so on my system.
Note how the assignment is made, with the shell command
sqlite3LIB := $(shell ls /usr/local/lib/libsqlite3.so)
TIP 95:
Bash: Conditional Expressions
if [ -e /etc/ntp.conf ]
then
echo "You have the ntp config file"
else
echo "You do not have the ntp config file"
fi
Now using an AND condition inside the [ ]. By the way, above, you
can put the "then" on the same line as the if "if [ -e /etc/ntp.conf ]; then"
as long as you use the ";".
if [ \( -e /etc/ntp.conf \) -a \( -e /etc/ntp/ntpservers \) ]
then
echo "You have ntp config and ntpservers"
elif [ -e /etc/ntp.conf ]; then
echo " You just have ntp.conf "
elif [ -e /etc/ntp/ntpservers ]; then
echo " You just have ntpservers "
else
echo " you have neither ntp.conf or ntpservers"
fi
A few things to note above. Else if statement is written as "elif", and when
dealing with "(" you will need to insert "\(". By the way "-o" can replace "-a"
and the "-o" is for OR condition. AND can be done as follows too.
if [ -e /etc/ntp.conf ] && [ -e /etc/ntp/ntpservers ]
then
echo "You have ntp config and ntpservers"
elif [ -e /etc/ntp.conf ]; then
echo " You just have ntp.conf "
elif [ -e /etc/ntp/ntpservers ]; then
echo " You just have ntpservers "
else
echo " you have neither ntp.conf or ntpservers"
fi
Conditional Expressions (files).
-b file True if file exists and is a block file
-c file True if file exists and is a character device file
-d file True if file exists and is a directory
-e file True if file exists
-f file True if file exists and is a regular file
-g file True if file exists and is set goup id
-G file True if owned by the effective group ID
-k file True if "sticky" bit is set and file exists
-L file True if file exists and is a symbolic link
-n string True if string is non-null
-O file Ture if file exists and is owned by the effective user ID
-p file True if file is a named pipe (FIFO)
-r file True if file is readable
-s file True if file has size > 0
-S file True if file exists and is a socket
-t file True if file is open and refers to a terminal.
-u file True if setuid bit is set
-w file True if file exists and is writeable
-x file True if file executable
-x dir True if directory can be searched
file1 -nt file2 True if file1 modification date newer than file2
file1 -ot file2 True if file1 modification date older than file2
file1 -ef file2 True if file1 and file2 have same inode
Conditional Expressions (Integers).
-lt Less than
-le Less than or equal
-eq Equal
-ge Greater than or equal
-gt Greater than
-ne Not equal
Example usage.
#!/bin/bash
{
while read num value; do
if [ $num -gt 2 ]; then
echo $value
fi
done
} < somefile
Conditional Expressions (Strings).
str1 = str2 str1 matches str2
str1 != str2 str1 does not matches str2
str1 < str2 str1 is less than str2
str1 > str2 str1 is greater than str2
-n str1 str1 is not null (length greater than 0)
-z str1 str1 is null (las length 0)
TIP 96:
CVS: Working with cvs
INITIAL REPOSITORY:
To create a repository, and this is normally done by the system admin. This
is NOT creating a project to checkout, but the location where everything
will be stored! The initial repository!
cvs -d repository_root_directory init
Or here is a specific example:
cvs -d /work/cvsREPOSITORY/ init
Creating a directory tree from scratch. For a new project, the easiest thing to
do is probably to create an empty directory structure, like this:
$ mkdir sqlite_examples
$ mkdir sqlite_examples/man
$ mkdir sqlite_examples/testing
After that, you use the import command to create the
corresponding (empty) directory structure inside the repository:
$ cd <directory>
$ cvs -d repository_root_directory import -m "Created directory structure" yoyodyne/dir yoyo start
Or, here is a specific example.
$ cd sqlite_examples
$ cvs -d /work/cvsREPOSITORY/ import -m 'test SQlite' sqlite_examples sqlite_examples start
Now, you can delete the directory sqlite_examples, or go to another directory and type
the following:
$ cvs -d /work/cvsREPOSITORY/ co sqlite_examples
COOL TOOLS:
1. cvsps
2. cvsreport
cvsps which you can find at http://www.cobite.com/cvsps/cvsps-2.0rc1.tar.gz
$ cvsps -f README_sqlite_tutorial.html
TIP 97:
Common vi and vim commands
Command mode ESC
dd delete
u undelete
y yank (copy to buffer)
p/P p before cursor/P after cursor
Ctl-g show current line number
shft-G end of file
n shft-G move to line n
/stuff/ search
n repeat in same direction
N repeat in opposite direction
/return repeat seach forward
?return repeat seach backward
"dyy Yank current line to buffer d
"a7yy Yank next 7 lines to buffer a
or
:1,7ya a Yank [ya] lines 1,7 to buffer a
:1,7ya b Yank [ya] lines 1,7 to buffer b
:5 pu b Put [pu] buffer b after line 5
"dP Put the content of buffer d before cursor
"ap Put the contents of buffer a after cursor
:1,4 w! file2 Write lines 1,4 to file2
:1,3
:set nu Display line numbers
:set nonum Turns off display
:set ic Ignore Case
:e <filename> Edit a file in a new buffer
:g/<reg exp>/p Print matching regular expression
vim
:split
:split <filename>
:sp <filename>
:split new
ctl-w To move between windows
ctl-w+
ctl-w- To change size
ctl+wv Split windows vertically
ctl-wq Close window
:only To view only 1 window
vim dictionary - put the following command in ~/.vimrc
set dictionary+=/usr/share/dict/words
set thesaurus+=/usr/share/dict/words
Now, after you type a word <ctl-x><ctl-k><ctl-n> and to
go back in the listing <ctl-p>
butter<ctl-x><ctl-k><ctl-n>
Scripting - you can script vi commands using ex. For example
suppose you want to replace all occurrences of "one" with "two", then
exit the file if there are changes. You would put the following in a file call script
Contents of script
%s/one/two/g|x
If you want to run this on all files with the patten "example*"
for i in $(ls example*); do ex - $i <script; done
TIP 98:
Using apt-get
$ apt-get update
$ apt-get -s install <pkage> <---- if everything is ok, then, remove the s
Note you may want to use dpkg to purge if you have to do a reinstall.
$ dpkg --purge exim4-base
$ dpkg --purge exim4-config
$ apt-get install exim4
$ dpkg-reconfigure exim4-config
TIP 99:
Mounting a cdrom on openbsd and installing packages
$ mkdir -p /cdrom
$ mount /dev/cd0a /cdrom
$ cd /cdrom
To add packages
$ pkg_add -v <directory>
Mounting a cdrom on linux to a user's home sub-directory:
$ mkdir -p /home/chirico/cdrom
$ mount /dev/cdrom /home/chirico/cdrom
TIP 100:
Creating a boot floppy for knoppix cd:
$ dd if=/mnt/cdrom/KNOPPIX/boot.img of=/dev/fd0 bs=1440k
References:
http://www.knoppix.net/docs/index.php/BootFloppyHowTo
For a lot of the knoppix how-to's
http://www.knoppix.net/docs/index.php/
TIP 101:
Diction and Style Tools for Linux http://ftp.gnu.org/gnu/diction/
$ diction mytext|less
Or, this can be done interactively
$ diction
This is more text to read and you can do with it
what you want.
(stdin):1: This is more text to read and you [can -> (do not confuse with "may")] do with it what you want.
DESCRIPTION
Diction finds all sentences in a document, that contain phrases from a
database of frequently misused, bad or wordy diction. It further
checks for double words. If no files are given, the document is read
from standard input. Each found phrase is enclosed in [ ] (brackets).
Suggestions and advice, if any, are printed headed by a right arrow ->.
A sentence is a sequence of words, that starts with a capitalised word
and ends with a full stop, double colon, question mark or exclaimation
mark. A single letter followed by a dot is considered an abbreviation,
so it does not terminate a sentence. Various multi-letter abbrevia-
tions are recognized, they do not terminate a sentence as well.
TIP 102:
Using a mail alias.
Suppose all root mail on your system to go to one root account [email protected]
In the following file:
/etc/aliases
Add this line
root: [email protected]
Next, run newaliases [/usr/bin/newaliases] as follows:
$ newaliases
Special note: It's possible to send mail to more than one address. Suppose you want
mail going to [email protected] above, plus you want it going to user donkey
on the local system.
root: [email protected] donkey
TIP 103:
Chrony - this service is similiar to ntp. It keeps accurate time
on your computer against a very accurate clock in across
a network with various time delays.
Reference: http://go.to/chrony
In the file "/etc/chrony/chrony.conf" add/replace the following
server 146.186.218.60
server 128.118.25.3
server 128.2.129.21
Next start the chrony service
$ /etc/init.d/chrony restart
Next verify that this is working. It may take 20 or 30 minutes to update
the clock.
Shell command:
# chronyc
chronyc> sourcestats
210 Number of sources = 3
Name/IP Address NP NR Span Frequency Freq Skew Std Dev
========================================================================
b50.cede.psu.edu 2 0 64 0.000 2000.000 4000ms
otc2.psu.edu 2 0 66 0.000 2000.000 4000ms
FS3.ECE.CMU.EDU 2 0 64 0.000 2000.000 4000ms
chronyc>
It is probably best to let chrony do its work. However, if you want to
set both the hardware and software clock, the following will work:
Sets the hardware clock
# hwclock --set --date="12/10/04 10:18:05"
Sync the hardware clock to software
# hwclock --hctosys
Set the timezone
# ln -sf /usr/share/zoneinfo/UTC /etc/localtime
or
# ln -sf /usr/share/zoneinfo/US/Eastern /etc/localtime
Set ZONE in /etc/sysconfig/clock
ZONE="Etc/GMT"
or I use the following for my timezone
ZONE="America/New York"
Normally the system keep accurate time with the software clock.
TIP 104:
NFS mount
SERVER (192.168.1.182)
Make sure nfs is running on the server
$ /etc/init.d/nfs restart
At the server the contents of /etc/exports for
allowing 2 computers (192.168.1.171 and 192.168.1.71)
to access the home directory of this server. Note that
read write (rw) access is allowed.
$ cat /etc/exports
/home 192.168.1.171(rw)
/home 192.168.1.71(rw)
Or, if you have a lot of clients on 192.168.1.* then consider
the following:
/home 192.168.1.0/255.255.252.0(rw)
Next, still at the server, run the exportfs command
$ exportfs -rv
IPTABLES (lokkit). If you're using fedora with default lokkit firewall
then you can put the following under "Other ports".
Other ports nfs:tcp nfs:udp
If the above does not work or you are not using lokkit
IPTABLES (values in /etc/sysconfig/iptables on SERVER )
# NFS Need to accept fragmented packets and may not have header
# so you will not know where they are coming from
-A INPUT -f -j ACCEPT
-A INPUT -p tcp -m tcp -s 192.168.1.171 -m multiport --dports 111,683,686,685,1026,2049,2219 -j ACCEPT
-A INPUT -p tcp -s 192.168.1.171 -d 0/0 --dport 32765:32768 -j ACCEPT
-A INPUT -p udp -m udp -s 192.168.1.171 -m multiport --dports 111,683,686,685,1026,2049,2219 -j ACCEPT
-A INPUT -p udp -s 192.168.1.171 -d 0/0 --dport 32765:32768 -j ACCEPT
-A INPUT -f -j ACCEPT
-A INPUT -p tcp -m tcp -s 192.168.1.71 -m multiport --dports 111,683,686,685,1026,2049,2219 -j ACCEPT
-A INPUT -p tcp -s 192.168.1.71 -d 0/0 --dport 32765:32768 -j ACCEPT
-A INPUT -p udp -m udp -s 192.168.1.71 -m multiport --dports 111,683,686,685,1026,2049,2219 -j ACCEPT
-A INPUT -p udp -s 192.168.1.71 -d 0/0 --dport 32765:32768 -j ACCEPT
(Reference: http://nfs.sourceforge.net/nfs-howto/server.html)
and
(Reference: http://nfs.sourceforge.net/nfs-howto/security.html)
CLIENT1 (192.168.1.171)
$ mkdir -p /home2
$ cat /etc/fstab
192.168.1.182:/home /home2 nfs rw 0 0
$ mount -a -t nfs
Or to do a one time mounting by hand
$ mount -t nfs 192.168.1.182:/home /home2
Now /home2 on the client will be /home on the server
Reference:
http://nfs.sourceforge.net/nfs-howto/index.html
MONITOR NFS:
To monitor the client:
$ nfsstat -c
Also note you can "cat /proc/net/rpc/nfs" as well.
To monitor the server (note the -s instead of the -c).
$ nfsstat -s
Also note you can "cat /proc/net/rpc/nfsd" as well.
The following "cat" command is done on the NFS server, and shows which
clients are mounting. This does not go with examples above. By the way,
"root_squash" is the default, and means that root access on the clients is
denied. So, how does the client root get access to these filesystems? You have
to "su - <someuser>".
$ cat /proc/fs/nfs/exports
# Version 1.1
# Path Client(Flags) # IPs
/home 192.168.1.102(rw,root_squash,sync,wdelay)
/home squeezel.squeezel.com(rw,root_squash,sync,wdelay)
/home 192.168.1.106(rw,root_squash,sync,wdelay)
/home livingroom.squeezel.com(rw,root_squash,sync,wdelay)
/home 10.8.0.1(rw,root_squash,sync,wdelay)
/home closet.squeezel.com(rw,root_squash,sync,wdelay)
(Reference: http://www.vanemery.com/Linux/NFSv4/NFSv4-no-rpcsec.html#automount )
TIP 105:
Ports used for Microsoft products
http://www.microsoft.com/canada/smallbiz/sgc/articles/ref_net_ports_ms_prod.mspx?pf=true
Firewalling?
http://www.microsoft.com/technet/prodtechnol/windowsserver2003/library/ServerHelp/428c1bbf-2ceb-4f76-a1ef-0219982eca10.mspx
To find out common port mappings, take a look at "/etc/services"
To find an extensive list, reference http://www.iana.org/assignments/port-numbers
TIP 106:
Man pages: If man pages are formatting incorrectly with PuTTY, try editing
the "/etc/man.config" file with the following changes:
NROFF /usr/bin/groff -Tlatin1 -mandoc
NEQN /usr/bin/geqn -Tlatin1
(Reference TIP 7 for using man)
TIP 107:
Valgrind: check for memory leaks in your programs. (http://valgrind.org/)
This is how you can run it on the program "a.out" for valgrind version 2.2.0
$ valgrind --logfile=valgrind.output --tool=memcheck ./a.out
This is how you write the logfile "--log-file" for valgrind-3.0.1
$ valgrind --log-file=valgrind --leak-check=yes --tool=memcheck ./a.out
With C++ programs with gcc 3.4 and later that use STL, export GLIBCXX_FORCE_NEW
only when testing to disable memory caching. Remember to enable for production
as this will have a performance penalty. Reference http://valgrind.org/docs/FAQ/
TIP 108:
Runlevel Configuring.
The program ntsysv, run as root, gives you a ncurses GUI to what will
run on your system on boot. The chkconfig program (man chkconfig) has
the ability to list which programs are set to start on the chosen
run level.
# ntsysv
# chkconfig
If at this moment you want to see what services are currently running,
then, run the following command:
# /sbin/service --status-all
Note, you can also set these manually. For example, normally you will
have files in "/etc/init.d/" that will take parameters like "start","stop"
"restart".
Take a look at "/etc/init.d/mysql" this file will start and stop the
mysql daemon. So, how does know which run levels, and the order it gets
loaded in the run level to other programs? By the K<number> and S<number>
values.
$ ls /etc/rc3.d/*mysql
/etc/rc3.d/K85mysql
/etc/rc3.d/S85mysql
So here on my system the start value is 85. Looking in /etc/rc3.d, which is
run level 3, any program with a lower number S84something will get loaded
before mysql.
I manually set the run level as follows for mysql.
# cd /etc/rc3.d
# ln -s ../init.d/mysql S85mysql
# ln -s ../init.d/mysql K85mysql
# cd /etc/rc5.d
# ln -s ../init.d/mysql S85mysql
# ln -s ../init.d/mysql K85mysql
Note that I could have chose other numbers as well. "ntsysv" gives
you a graphical interface.
This is a way of doing this with "chkconfig" at the command prompt.
# chkconfig --list mysqld
mysqld 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off
Above you can see it's on. Here's how we would have turned this on with chkconfig.
# chkconfig --level 35 mysqld on
Reference:
http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-boot.html?ca=dgr-lnxw99-obg-BootFast
TIP 109:
File Alteration Monitor - Gamin a FAM replacement
http://www.gnome.org/~veillard/gamin/
http://www.gnome.org/~veillard/gamin/sources/
****** EXAMPLE NOT COMPLETE *****
Working with fam - file alteration monitor. Mail uses this to signify
a change in a file's status.
Below is the sample C program ftest.c which can be compiled as
follows:
$ gcc -o ftest ftest.c -lfam
You will need to work with this as root
# ./ftest <somefile absolute path>
Reference:
http://techpubs.sgi.com/library/tpl/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?db=man&fname=/usr/share/catman/p_man/cat3x/fam.z
http://www.devchannel.org/devtoolschannel/04/05/13/2146252.shtml
TIP 110:
glibc - this is the main library used by C, and the following
link below gives you examples on everything from sockets,math,
date and time functions, user environment, and much more.
http://www.gnu.org/software/libc/manual/html_mono/libc.html
How do you know which version of glibc you are running?
#include <stdio.h>
#include <gnu/libc-version.h>
int main (void)
{
puts (gnu_get_libc_version ());
return 0;
}
Thanks to Jorg Esser for pointing this out, there is a
way to get the GNU C library version directly, by running
the library name as if it were a command line.
[chirico@v0 ~]$ /lib/libc.so.6
GNU C Library stable release version 2.7, by Roland McGrath et al.
Copyright (C) 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
This is free software; see the source for copying conditions.
There is NO warranty; not even for MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A
PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
Compiled by GNU CC version 4.1.2 20070925 (Red Hat 4.1.2-32).
Compiled on a Linux >>2.6.20-1.3001.fc6xen<< system on 2007-10-18.
Available extensions:
The C stubs add-on version 2.1.2.
crypt add-on version 2.1 by Michael Glad and others
GNU Libidn by Simon Josefsson
Native POSIX Threads Library by Ulrich Drepper et al
BIND-8.2.3-T5B
RT using linux kernel aio
For bug reporting instructions, please see:
<http://www.gnu.org/software/libc/bugs.html>.
TIP 111:
nslookup and dig - query Internet name servers interactively.
$ nslookup
>chirico.org
Server: 68.80.0.6
Address: 68.80.0.6#53
Name: chirico.org
Address: 66.35.250.210
>
The nslookup command will query the dns server is "/etc/resolve.conf"
However, you can force a certain dns with "- server". For example the
command below goes to the server named dilbert
$ nslookup - dilbert
>
dig:
dig gives you more information. You should probably use dig instead
of nslookup.
Below I am forcing the lookup from DNS 68.80.0.6 of the name chirico.org, and
note that the query time is return too.
$ dig @68.80.0.6 +qr chirico.org
; <<>> DiG 9.2.1 <<>> @68.80.0.6 +qr chirico.org
;; global options: printcmd
;; Sending:
;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY, status: NOERROR, id: 55908
;; flags: rd; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 0, AUTHORITY: 0, ADDITIONAL: 0
;; QUESTION SECTION:
;chirico.org. IN A
;; Got answer:
;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY, status: NOERROR, id: 55908
;; flags: qr rd ra; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 1, AUTHORITY: 2, ADDITIONAL: 2
;; QUESTION SECTION:
;chirico.org. IN A
;; ANSWER SECTION:
chirico.org. 5538 IN A 66.35.250.210
;; AUTHORITY SECTION:
chirico.org. 30599 IN NS ns78.worldnic.com.
chirico.org. 30599 IN NS ns77.worldnic.com.
;; ADDITIONAL SECTION:
ns78.worldnic.com. 16022 IN A 216.168.225.218
ns77.worldnic.com. 7 IN A 216.168.228.41
;; Query time: 155 msec
;; SERVER: 68.80.0.6#53(68.80.0.6)
;; WHEN: Thu Dec 23 07:48:23 2004
;; MSG SIZE rcvd: 127
So what if you wanted to know what name the IP address 66.35.250.210
resolves to, when using dns 68.80.0.12.
$ dig @68.80.0.12 -x 66.35.250.210
...
;; ANSWER SECTION:
210.250.35.66.in-addr.arpa. 3600 IN CNAME 210.0/24.250.35.66.in-addr.arpa.
210.0/24.250.35.66.in-addr.arpa. 3600 IN PTR vhost.sourceforge.net.
Above you can see it resolved to "vhost.sourceforge.net"
It's also possible to get all the zone information. The following command
queries my local dns 192.168.1.71 for the squeezel.com. zone information.
$ dig @192.168.1.71 squeezel.com. axfr
Reference ( http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/DNS-HOWTO-5.html )
Also see TIP 223.
TIP 112:
Using GNU Autotools - so you can produce the familiar "./configure" "make" and "make install"
commands. There is also a "make dist".
The program sqlite3api.cc and the rest of this code can be found at
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/cpearls/autotools.tar.gz?download
A "Makefile.am" is required:
bin_PROGRAMS = sprog
sprog_SOURCES = sqlite3api.cc
sprog_LDADD = @INCLUDES@ @SQLIBOBJS@
In addition, a "configure.in" file is required. Note, AC_CHECK_LIB will
check the "libsqlite3.so" file for the "sqlite3_open" file. Note that
"sqlite3", is a shortcut for "libsqlite3" by convention. If this file
is not found, AC_CHECK_FILE looks for "/usr/local/lib/libsqlite3.a". If
this is found, then, "-lsqlite3" is added to the LIBS environment variable.
Also, "-I/usr/local/include" and "-L/usr/local/lib" will be added on the
command line. This is common when some one does not have the library in
the path. (See TIP 49)
dnl Process this file with autoconf to produce a configure script.
AC_INIT(sqlite3api.cc)
AM_INIT_AUTOMAKE(sqliteprog, 1.0)
AC_PROG_CXX
CXXFLAGS='-Wall -W -O2 -s -pipe'
AC_CHECK_LIB(sqlite3,sqlite3_open,[],found=no)
if test "$found" = "no"; then
AC_CHECK_FILE(/usr/local/lib/libsqlite3.a, found=yes)
if test "$found" = "yes"; then
LIBS="$LIBS -lsqlite3"
INCLUDES="$INCLUDES -I/usr/local/include"
EXTRALIB='-L/usr/local/lib'
else
echo "Are you SURE sqlite3 is installed?"
fi
fi
SQLIBOBJS='-Wl,-R/usr/local/lib'
AC_SUBST(INCLUDES)
AC_SUBST(SQLIBOBJS)
AC_SUBST(EXTRALIB)
AC_OUTPUT(Makefile)
To build the configure file, just run the following:
$ aclocal
$ autoconf
$ touch NEWS README AUTHORS ChangeLog
$ automake --add-missing
Now if you want to make a tar.gz file "sqliteprog-1.0.tar.gz", then
all you have to run is the following:
$ make dist
Note: did you ever want to save all the output from a ./configure? Well, it
is automatically saved in the "config.log" file. In fact, this file may
contain a lot more than what you saw on the screen.
Also, you may need to rerun ./configure. But before you do, delete
the "config.cache" file to get a clean build.
TIP 113:
EMACS - common emacs commands.
M is the ESC
C or c is the Ctl
Shell - when working in a shell. "M-x rename-uniquely" is good for split screen editing.
M-x rename-uniquely Use this for multiple shells (renames buffer so it's not the same shell)
C-c C-z Send job in background (when working in a shell)
C-c C-o commit-kill-output (gets rid of a lot of shell output)
C-c C-r reposition at beginning of output
C-c C-e reposition at end of output
M-x send-invisible Hide passwords - use this before typing a password
Note: if the shell prompt does not show up correctly, then, you may want to creat a ".emacs_bash"
file with the following contents:
PS1="emacs:\W \$ "
Directories (C-x d) give you a directory listing. You know all those annoying "~" and "#"
file that you get? You can easily delete these when in "dired" mode by hitting
"~", then "d" to flag it for delete. Then, hit "x" to and confirm deletion.
These are other command that work on highlighted files in "dired" mode.
R rename
v view
Z compress the file
+ create directory
Other common commands:
c-x l list the line you are on, and how many lines in the document.
You will get something like: Page has 4881 lines (4440 + 442),
which means you are on the 4440 line.
c-x rm bookmark make
c-x rb bookmark bounce
c-x rb notes
c-x rb emacs
c-x / <r> (save position in register <r>)
c-x j <r> (jump to position in register <r>)
c-x r SPC 1 (mark current point in register 1)
c-x r j 1 (jump to marked point in register 1)
c-x r t <string> (insert string into register)
c-x r s 1 (save marked region in register 1)
c-x r i 1 (insert marked region)
c-x c-o (delete all blank lines, except one)
c-x z (repeat the last command ... stop with an a)
c-x zz (repeat the last command twice)
rectangle
---------
C-SPC
goto the next region
C-x
C-x
then, C-x r r "name of register"
to insert the register
C-x r i "name of register"
macros:
-------
c-x ( start macro
c-x ) end macro
c-x e execute macro
mail:
-----
c-x m mail
c-c c-s send
C-x C-e
(insert "\n\nExtra Line of text")
;; chirico functions in .emacs
;; This creates an html template
(defun my-html ()
(interactive)
(insert "<html>
<head>
<META HTTP-EQUIV=\"Pragma\" CONTENT=\"no-cache\">
<META HTTP-EQUIV=\"Expires\" CONTENT=\"-1\">
</head>
<body bgcolor=\"#ffffff\">
</body>
</html>")
)
Backspace issues when using "emacs -nw"? They putting the following in your "~/.emacs" file
(global-set-key "\C-d" 'backward-delete-char)
(global-set-key "\C-h" 'backward-delete-char)
(global-set-key (kbd "DEL") 'delete-char)
TIP 114:
ncftpget - an intelligent ftp client (http://www.ncftp.com/). Also
check your fedora or debian install. This package allows
you to easily download packages from ftp sites.
This is an example of connect to an ftp site, with a subdirectory, and
downloading all in one command.
$ ncftpget ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/gcc/gcc-3.2.3/gcc-3.2.3.tar.gz
Of if you want to get the fedora core 3 installs
$ ncftpget ftp://ftp.linux.ncsu.edu/pub/fedora/linux/core/3/i386/iso/FC3*
TIP 115:
expr - evaluate expressions. You can use this on the command line
$ expr 6 + 4
10
Note the spaces. Without spaces, you get the following:
$ expr 6+4
6+4
If you're using "*", you'll need a "\" before it
$ expr 10 \* 10
100
This also works for variables
$ var1=34
$ expr $var1 + 3
37
or
$ var1=2
$ var1=`expr $var1 \* 2`
$ echo $var1
4
see (TIP 25) you can get the cosine(.23)
$ var1=`echo "c(.23)"|bc -l`
$ echo $var1
.97366639500537483696
You can also do substrings:
$ expr substr "BigBear" 4 4
Bear
And length of strings
$ mstr="12345"
$ expr length $mstr
5
Regular expressions
$ expr "a3" : [a-z][1-9]
2
Or you can get a bit fancy
$ myexpr="[a-z][1-9]"
$ echo $myexpr
[a-z][1-9]
$ expr "a3" : $myexpr
2
This may not be the best way to find out if it is Friday, but
it seems to work. It's more of an exercise in xargs.
$ date
Fri Dec 31 16:44:47 EST 2004
$ date|xargs -i expr {} : "[Fri]"
1
TIP 116:
eval
$ mypipe="|"
$ eval ls $mypipe wc
6 6 129
Did you catch that? The above statement is the same as
$ ls | wc
Where "|" is put into the variable $mypipe
(also see TIP 118)
TIP 117:
lxr, glimpse, patchset - tools for reading the kernel source
Note before going through all this trouble, you may find what
you're looking for at the following site:
http://lxr.linux.no/
This example puts some of the files in /home/src since my home
partition is the largest. Plus, you do not want to over write
the source in /usr/src/ If you want to put your files elsewhere
just substitute /home/src for your desired directory.
patchset -- download and setup
$ export SRCDIR=/home/src
$ cd $SRCDIR
$ wget http://www.csn.ul.ie/~mel/projects/patchset/patchset-0.5.tar.gz
$ export PATH=$PATH:$SRCDIR/patchset-0.5/bin
Now edit "/home/src/patchset-0.5/etc/patchset.conf" and set WWW_USER to
whatever your website runs as
export WWW_USER=nobody
Getting kernel source. The last step builds and asks a lot of questions. Enter
yes to things that interest you, since this is what you will see in the source
code. It is not going to build for booting. The "downlaod -p" is for downloading
a patch.
$ download 2.6.10
$ createset 2.6.10
$ make-kernel -b 2.6.10
glimpse -- download and setup
$ mkdir -p /home/src/glimpse
$ cd /home/src/glimpse
$ wget http://webglimpse.net/trial/glimpse-latest.tar.gz
$ tar -xzf glimpse-latest.tar.gz
$ cd glimpse-4.18.0
$ ./configure; make
$ make install
lxr -- download and setup
$ make -p /home/src/lxr
$ cd /home/src/lxr
$ wget http://heanet.dl.sourceforge.net/sourceforge/lxr/lxr-0.3.1.tar.gz
$ cd lxr-0.3
Edit "Makefile" and set PERLBIN to "/usr/bin/perl" or the where perl is
on your system. Also set INSTALLPREFIX to "/var/www/lxr". Then, as root
do the following:
$ make install
Apache changes
Next edit the apache httpd.conf. On my system it is
"/usr/local/apache2/conf/httpd.conf", but if you did a fedora install
I think this file is located at "/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf".
Alias /lxr/ "/var/www/lxr/"
<Directory "/var/www/lxr/">
Options ExecCGI Indexes Includes FollowSymLinks MultiViews
AllowOverride all
Order allow,deny
Allow from all
<Files ~ (search|source|ident|diff|find)>
SetHandler cgi-script
</Files>
</Directory>
lxr - continued "/var/www/lxr/http/lxr.conf" changes. The following contains
my lxr.conf with changes made to almost every variable. Make sure you use
your website in place of 192.168.1.71
# Configuration file.
# Define typed variable "v", read valueset from file.
variable: v, Version, [/var/www/lxr/source/versions], [/var/www/lxr/source/defversion]
# Define typed variable "a". First value is default.
variable: a, Architecture, (i386, alpha, m68k, mips, ppc, sparc, sparc64)
# Define the base url for the LXR files.
baseurl: http://192.168.1.71/lxr/http/
# These are the templates for the HTML heading, directory listing and
# footer, respectively.
htmlhead: /var/www/lxr/http/template-head
htmltail: /var/www/lxr/http/template-tail
htmldir: /var/www/lxr/http/template-dir
# The source is here.
sourceroot: /var/www/lxr/source/$v/
srcrootname: Linux
# "#include <foo.h>" is mapped to this directory (in the LXR source
# tree)
incprefix: /include
# The database files go here.
dbdir: /var/www/lxr/source/$v/
# Glimpse can be found here.
glimpsebin: /usr/local/bin/glimpse
# The power of regexps. This is pretty Linux-specific, but quite
# useful. Tinker with it and see what it does. (How's that for
# documentation?)
map: /include/asm[^\/]*/ /include/asm-$a/